Fused Deposition Modeling

Fused Deposition Modeling
Name	Fused Deposition Modeling
Type	Additive manufacturing
Inventor	Stratasys
Year	1988
Other names	Fused Filament Fabrication

Fused Deposition Modeling is an additive manufacturing technique in which thermoplastic filament is extruded through a heated nozzle to form three-dimensional objects layer by layer. Developed for rapid prototyping and low-volume production, it has influenced manufacturing, design, research, and education across industries and institutions worldwide. The method has connections to numerous companies, universities, research centers, inventors, and standards bodies that advanced its commercialization and application.

History

The development of the process involved figures and organizations such as Scott Crump, Stratasys, Idaho National Laboratory, MIT, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, University of Sheffield, University of Texas at Austin, Carnegie Mellon University, NASA, European Space Agency, DARPA, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tsinghua University, University of Tokyo, ETH Zurich, Fraunhofer Society, GE Aviation, Siemens, 3D Systems, HP Inc., EOS GmbH, MakerBot, Ultimaker, Prusa Research, Autodesk, Dassault Systèmes, SolidWorks, ANSYS, E3D-Online, RepRap Project, Open Source Ecology, Arduino, Raspberry Pi Foundation, Google, Apple Inc., Microsoft, IBM, Facebook, Twitter, Inc., Amazon (company), Boeing, Airbus, Lockheed Martin, General Electric Company, Ford Motor Company, Toyota Motor Corporation, BMW, Volkswagen Group, Jaguar Land Rover, Procter & Gamble, Philips, Siemens Healthineers, Johnson & Johnson, Medtronic, GlaxoSmithKline, Pfizer, Merck & Co. for early industrial and research adoption. Patents, academic publications, and maker movements propelled diffusion through collaborations with institutions like University of Cambridge, Imperial College London, National University of Singapore, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, and University of California, Berkeley.

Principles and process

The process relies on thermoplastic extrusion, motion control, and slicing software developed by entities such as Cura, Slic3r, Simplify3D, MATLAB, SolidWorks, Autodesk Fusion 360, Siemens NX, PTC, ANSYS Workbench, OpenSCAD, Blender, Rhinoceros 3D, Grasshopper, Catia, Inventor, Creo, LabVIEW, National Instruments, STMicroelectronics, NVIDIA, Intel Corporation, AMD, ARM Holdings, Texas Instruments, and Atmel. Stepwise, a digital model from designers at IDEO, Frog Design, Zaha Hadid Architects, Foster + Partners, Gensler, Arup Group, Skidmore, Owings & Merrill, or Bjarke Ingels Group is sliced into layers by software, then motion systems governed by controllers from Arduino, BeagleBoard, Raspberry Pi Foundation, or industrial CNC controllers drive extruders to deposit filament along toolpaths. Quality is influenced by nozzle temperature, bed adhesion, layer height, print speed, and cooling managed by hardware from E3D-Online, HICTOP, Duet3D, OpenBuilds, Bosch, Siemens, Schneider Electric, and Rockwell Automation.

Materials

Common feedstocks include polymers and composites produced by firms like BASF, DuPont, 3M, Kimberly-Clark, Arkema, Evonik Industries, Celanese, Solvay, Covestro, Eastman Chemical Company, Mitsubishi Chemical, LG Chem, SABIC, INEOS, Royal DSM, Cura Materials, and research groups at Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Sandia National Laboratories, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Johns Hopkins University, Stanford University, Harvard University, Yale University exploring advanced blends. Typical thermoplastics include PLA, ABS, PETG, Nylon, TPU, polycarbonate, and high-performance polymers like PEEK and PEI developed by Solvay and Victrex. Filled and composite filaments incorporate carbon fiber, glass fiber, metal powders, or ceramic particulates from suppliers and collaborators such as Toray Industries, Teijin, SGL Carbon, Alcoa, Rio Tinto, BASF, Sandvik, and Carpenter Technology.

Equipment and software

Manufacturing platforms range from desktop hobby systems by MakerBot, Prusa Research, Ultimaker, Creality, Monoprice, FlashForge, Anycubic, BQ, and LulzBot to industrial machines from Stratasys, 3D Systems, EOS GmbH, HP Inc., GE Additive, Renishaw, Arcam (company), ExOne, Markforged, Desktop Metal, SLM Solutions Group, Mesytec, and Trumpf. Supporting hardware includes motion components sourced from Bosch Rexroth, THK Co., Ltd., Nidec Corporation, SKF, NSK Ltd., Misumi, HIWIN, and control electronics from Texas Instruments, STMicroelectronics, Atmel, and Microchip Technology. Software ecosystems integrate CAD by Autodesk, PTC, Dassault Systèmes, Siemens PLM Software, slicing by Ultimaker Cura, Slic3r, IdeaMaker, and monitoring by OctoPrint, MatterControl, Simplify3D, while enterprise PLM systems from Siemens, Dassault Systèmes, PTC Windchill, and Autodesk Vault manage workflows.

Applications

Applications span industries and institutions including aerospace programs at NASA, Airbus, Boeing, Lockheed Martin, SpaceX, Blue Origin, Sierra Nevada Corporation, and Northrop Grumman; automotive projects at Ford Motor Company, General Motors, Toyota Motor Corporation, BMW, Mercedes-Benz, Volkswagen Group; medical devices and prosthetics by Johnson & Johnson, Medtronic, Stryker Corporation, Zimmer Biomet, Smith & Nephew; consumer products by Nike, Inc., Adidas, Apple Inc., Samsung Electronics, Sony Corporation; architecture and construction practices at Foster + Partners, Kengo Kuma and Associates, BIG (Bjarke Ingels Group), Snøhetta, and Zaha Hadid Architects; education and research at MIT, Stanford University, Harvard University, Caltech, Imperial College London, Tsinghua University; cultural projects at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Tate Modern, Louvre, Victoria and Albert Museum, Smithsonian Institution; and manufacturing ecosystems in collaborations with GE Additive, Siemens Digital Industries, Schneider Electric, Bosch Group.

Advantages and limitations

Advantages cited by practitioners at Toyota Motor Corporation, NASA, GE Aviation, Siemens, Boeing, Airbus, Ford Motor Company, BMW, General Electric Company, Lockheed Martin include low-cost tooling, rapid iteration, part consolidation, and accessibility for makers at Maker Faire and organizations such as Fab Lab and Fab Foundation. Limitations observed in aerospace and medical certification contexts by FAA, EASA, FDA, EMA include anisotropy, surface finish constraints, limited high-temperature performance versus traditional machining and injection molding capabilities used by Haas Automation, DMG Mori, Makino, Mazak Corporation, and material property variability requiring standards by ASTM International, ISO, SAE International, IEEE, MIL-STD-810G compliance efforts and supply-chain considerations addressed by DHL, FedEx, UPS.

Safety and environmental considerations

Safety guidance from agencies like Occupational Safety and Health Administration, European Chemicals Agency, Environment Agency (England and Wales), US Environmental Protection Agency, Health and Safety Executive (UK), and testing by laboratories at National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health informs practices for ventilation, thermal risk, and particulate emissions. Environmental discussions involve recyclers and companies such as TerraCycle, Veolia, Waste Management, Inc., SUEZ, Loop Industries, BASF, Covestro, Eastman Chemical Company considering lifecycle impacts, filament recycling, and biodegradable feedstocks promoted by Nature Conservancy, World Wildlife Fund, Greenpeace, and municipal programs in cities like San Francisco, Amsterdam, Tokyo, Seoul.

Category:Additive manufacturing