Fuel cells

Fuel cells
Public domain · source
Name	Fuel cells
Type	Electrochemical conversion device
Invented	1839 (Sir William Grove)
Developers	Sir William Grove, Francis Thomas Bacon, General Electric, Ballard Power Systems
Applications	Transportation, Stationary power, Portable power, Spacecraft

Fuel cells are electrochemical devices that convert the chemical energy of a fuel and an oxidant directly into electricity, heat, and water. They have been developed and deployed by a range of inventors, corporations, research institutions, and space agencies for applications from spacecraft to automobiles. Major actors in fuel cell development include historical figures and organizations such as Sir William Grove, Francis Thomas Bacon, General Electric, Ballard Power Systems, NASA, and Toyota, reflecting intersections with industrial firms, national laboratories, and universities.

Overview

Fuel cells trace technological lineage through early 19th-century experiments and 20th-century engineering programs linked to individuals and entities like Sir William Grove, Francis Thomas Bacon, General Electric, Bloom Energy, Plug Power, Ballard Power Systems, NASA, and the U.S. Department of Energy. Commercialization efforts intersect with automotive manufacturers such as Toyota, Honda, Hyundai, General Motors, and Daimler AG as well as energy firms like Shell plc, BP, Siemens, Toshiba, and Panasonic. Demonstration projects and policy frameworks have been shaped by institutions and events including the California Air Resources Board, European Union, Japan, China, United Kingdom, and initiatives like the H-Prize and programs administered by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Argonne National Laboratory, Sandia National Laboratories, and the Oak Ridge National Laboratory.

Principles and Operation

Fuel cell operation builds on electrochemical principles first explored by experimenters associated with Sir William Grove and later formalized in engineering by squads at General Electric and research groups at MIT, Stanford University, Imperial College London, and Delft University of Technology. A typical cell comprises an anode, cathode, and electrolyte with electrochemical reactions similar to those studied by Alessandro Volta and principles used in technologies developed at Bell Labs. Fuel feedstocks commonly include hydrogen produced via processes related to entities like Air Products and Chemicals, Linde plc, Air Liquide, and reforming technologies advanced by firms such as Johnson Matthey. Oxygen is often supplied from ambient air; oxidants and catalysts involve materials and suppliers linked to 3M Company, Johnson Matthey, and Umicore. Control systems and power electronics for fuel cell stacks have evolved with contributions from Siemens, Schneider Electric, and ABB.

Types of Fuel Cells

Prominent categories include the proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) associated with work at Ballard Power Systems and automotive programs at Toyota, the solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) developed by groups at Bloom Energy and Siemens, the molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC) advanced in projects by FuelCell Energy and General Electric, and the phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) commercialized by IOCL collaborators and early United Technologies Corporation research. Other forms—alkaline fuel cells (AFC) used historically by NASA in the Apollo program, direct methanol fuel cells (DMFC) investigated at Sony and CERMET research centers, and regenerative fuel cells linked to work at JPL and DLR—reflect a spectrum of chemistry and operating conditions. Research institutions such as ETH Zurich, Tsinghua University, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, and RMIT University pursue alternative architectures including microbial fuel cells and solid acid fuel cells.

Applications

Fuel cells power diverse sectors: transportation programs at Toyota, Honda, Hyundai, Nikola Corporation, and General Motors; stationary and distributed generation projects by Bloom Energy, FuelCell Energy, Siemens, and Panasonic; and aerospace missions run by NASA, ESA, and laboratories like JPL. Portable applications have been explored by consumer electronics companies such as Sony and defense programs within U.S. Department of Defense procurement and collaborations with DARPA. Demonstration and infrastructure efforts involve public agencies like the California Air Resources Board, regional utilities such as PG&E and EDF, and international programs including initiatives by Japan and South Korea.

Materials and Components

Key components—membranes, catalysts, bipolar plates, and gas diffusion layers—have origins in material science labs at 3M Company, Johnson Matthey, Umicore, Corning Incorporated, SGL Carbon, and universities like MIT and Imperial College London. Precious metal catalysts such as platinum supplied by firms like Anglo American Platinum and Johnson Matthey remain critical for many PEMFCs, while ceramic materials and rare-earth compounds feature in SOFCs with suppliers including CeramTec and research groups at Oak Ridge National Laboratory. Bipolar plate manufacturing draws on technologies from ArcelorMittal, SGL Carbon, and BASF, and membrane development is pursued by companies like 3M Company and DuPont. Component durability testing protocols are informed by standards organizations and testbeds at NREL, Sandia National Laboratories, and automotive OEM labs.

Performance and Efficiency

Performance metrics such as power density, round-trip efficiency, and durability are benchmarked in collaborations among U.S. Department of Energy, European Commission, Japan’s METI, and industry consortia including Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Energy Association. PEMFCs offer high power density for vehicles as demonstrated by Toyota and Honda prototypes; SOFCs achieve high electrical efficiency and combined heat and power use in deployments by Bloom Energy and Siemens. System efficiency depends on hydrogen pathways associated with producers like Air Products and Chemicals and electrolysis projects by NEL ASA and ITM Power. Reliability and lifecycle assessments reference standards and studies by ISO, IEC, and testing at Argonne National Laboratory.

Environmental and Economic Impacts

Environmental implications intersect with lifecycle analyses undertaken by research teams at National Renewable Energy Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley, Imperial College London, and policy bodies like the European Commission and California Air Resources Board. Economics involve capital costs influenced by suppliers such as Johnson Matthey and Bloom Energy and incentives shaped by programs in Japan, South Korea, European Union, and the United States. Hydrogen supply chains tie to fossil feedstock actors like Shell plc and BP as well as low-carbon pathways using electrolysis from companies like ITM Power and Nel ASA supported by European Investment Bank and national innovation funds. Deployment impacts touch urban and industrial stakeholders including Siemens, EDF, PG&E, and municipal programs in cities like Los Angeles, Tokyo, Seoul, and London.

Category:Electrochemistry