Foreign policy of the Empire of Japan

Foreign policy of the Empire of Japan
Native name	大日本帝國外交
Conventional long name	Empire of Japan foreign policy
Period	Meiji Restoration to 1945
Capital	Tokyo
Leaders	Emperor Meiji, Emperor Taishō, Emperor Shōwa

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Foreign policy of the Empire of Japan

The foreign policy of the Empire of Japan evolved from the Meiji Restoration through World War II, shaped by interactions with Great Britain, United States, France, Germany (Empire) and regional actors such as Qing dynasty, Republic of China, Joseon dynasty, and later Manchukuo. It combined diplomatic modernization, unequal treaty revision, imperialist expansion, and strategic alignments including the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, Tripartite Pact, and wartime antagonism with the United States and Soviet Union. The policy produced enduring consequences for East Asia, global geopolitics, and postwar institutions like the United Nations.

Background and Principles of Meiji and Taishō Diplomacy

Meiji-era diplomacy drew on models from Treaty of Kanagawa, Convention of Kanagawa (1854), and the aftermath of the Ansei Treaties to pursue renegotiation with United Kingdom, United States, France, and Netherlands (Kingdom of the Netherlands), while deploying missions such as the Iwakura Mission and legal reforms influenced by Napoleonic Code, Prussian Constitution, and officials like Ito Hirobumi, Okubo Toshimichi, Kido Takayoshi and Mutsuhito. Taishō diplomacy reflected parliamentary influence from parties like the Rikken Seiyūkai and Rikken Dōshikai, interactions with diplomats like Grover Cleveland-era precedents, and debates among naval strategists including Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō and intellectuals influenced by Rudolf Kjellén-inspired geopolitics and thinkers such as Kume Kunitake and Yukichi Fukuzawa. Legal and institutional frameworks referenced the Meiji Constitution, the Genrō elder statesmen, and ministries such as the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Japan) and Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff.

External conflict like the First Sino-Japanese War and Russo-Japanese War enabled acquisition of territories via the Treaty of Shimonoseki, the Treaty of Portsmouth, and the Treaty of Versailles (1919) outcomes affecting Shandong and German Pacific islands. Japan established control over Korea (annexation) via the Japan–Korea Treaty of 1910 and created puppet regimes including Manchukuo under figures like Puyi and administrators from the Kwantung Army. Colonial governance extended to Taiwan after 1895 and to mandates under the League of Nations such as former German New Guinea. Expansionist doctrine drew on precedents like the Sino-Japanese Friendship Treaty revisions and encounters with Empress Dowager Cixi's China, and produced incidents such as the Mukden Incident and campaigns including the Second Sino-Japanese War and the Battle of Nanking.

Japan sought revision of the Unequal Treaties concluded after the Convention of Kanagawa and Harris Treaty by adopting legal modernization, hosting missions like the Iwakura Mission, and negotiating with powers including United Kingdom, United States, France, Germany (Empire), Russia (Russian Empire), and Italy. The Anglo-Japanese Alliance of 1902, renegotiated in 1911 and 1923 contexts, and later abrogated at the Washington Naval Conference, reshaped naval parity discussions alongside the Five-Power Treaty and the Nine-Power Treaty. Crises such as the Taft-Katsura Agreement and disputes over Kashmir-style spheres influenced relations with United States policymakers, diplomats like Elihu Root, and financiers linked to institutions like Barings Bank.

Japan’s policy toward Qing dynasty, Republic of China, Yuan Shikai, Chiang Kai-shek, and Sun Yat-sen combined protectorate strategies, economic penetration, and military occupation. Instruments included the Treaty of Shimonoseki, the Liaodong Peninsula seizure debates, railway concessions such as the South Manchuria Railway Company, and administrative experiments exemplified by the South Manchurian Railway Zone and Kwantung Army interventions. The Twenty-One Demands on Republic of China and responses at the Paris Peace Conference and by figures like Vladimir Lenin and Winston Churchill influenced nationalist movements including the May Fourth Movement and Korean independence activists like Ahn Changho and Kim Koo.

Alliances and military diplomacy featured the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, the Nineteen Articles-era military planning, the Washington Naval Treaty, and later alignments culminating in the Tripartite Pact with Nazi Germany and Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946). The Imperial Japanese Army and Imperial Japanese Navy pursued independent diplomacy through units like the Kwantung Army and figures such as Hideki Tojo and Prince Fushimi Sadanaru, leading to incidents including the February 26 Incident and covert operations linked to organizations like the Black Dragon Society. Strategic confrontations involved battles such as the Battle of Midway and Battle of the Coral Sea and culminated in conflict with United States Navy commands under admirals like Chester W. Nimitz.

Economic diplomacy used instruments like the South Manchuria Railway Company, trade missions to United States, United Kingdom, and Germany (Weimar Republic), and policies shaped by the Great Depression and tariff regimes negotiated at conferences such as the Washington Naval Conference and the London Naval Conference. Japan’s pursuit of raw materials prompted interventions in Southeast Asia—including Dutch East Indies and French Indochina—and affected trade with conglomerates like the Zaibatsu families including Mitsui, Mitsubishi, and Sumitomo. Financial policy interacted with institutions like the Bank of Japan and was influenced by economists and officials connected to the Ministry of Finance (Japan).

Japan engaged with the League of Nations and participated in conferences such as the Washington Naval Conference and the Paris Peace Conference (1919), but withdrew following criticism of actions in Manchuria documented in the Lytton Report. Subsequent treaties included the Anti-Comintern Pact and the Tripartite Pact, while wartime diplomacy saw breakdowns with United States, United Kingdom, and entry into global conflict culminating in Surrender of Japan (1945) and occupation by Allied occupation of Japan led by Douglas MacArthur. Postwar legacies influenced instruments like the San Francisco Peace Treaty and the founding of United Nations bodies dealing with decolonization and security.

Category:Empire of Japan foreign relations