Ethiopia (1935–1936)
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| Ethiopia (1935–1936) | |
|---|---|
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| Conventional long name | Ethiopia (1935–1936) |
| Common name | Ethiopia |
| Era | Interwar period |
| Status | Sovereign empire invaded |
| Government type | Monarchy (Solomonic dynasty) |
| Capital | Addis Ababa |
| Event start | Second Italo-Ethiopian War |
| Year start | 1935 |
| Year end | 1936 |
| Event end | Italian East Africa |
Ethiopia (1935–1936) was the sovereign African empire that became the principal theater of the Second Italo-Ethiopian War after the Kingdom of Italy launched a full-scale invasion in October 1935, culminating in the occupation of Addis Ababa and the proclamation of the annexation into Italian East Africa in May 1936. The conflict linked figures such as Haile Selassie, Benito Mussolini, the Emperor, and institutions such as the League of Nations, while involving battles like Battle of Amba Aradam and Battle of Maychew, and influencing international policies toward collective security and chemical warfare norms.
Background and Prelude to Conflict
In the aftermath of the Italo-Turkish War and the First Italo-Ethiopian War, tensions between the Kingdom of Italy and Ethiopian Empire resurfaced under the fascist regime of Benito Mussolini, whose ambitions for an overseas empire targeted Eritrea and Italian Somaliland. Diplomatic incidents such as the Walwal incident and the collapse of negotiations at the Hoare–Laval Pact demonstrated the failure of mediation by actors including the United Kingdom, France, and the League of Nations Council. Ethiopian leadership under Haile Selassie sought military modernization with aid from vendors like the USSR and diplomatic support from the United States and League of Nations members, but the imbalance against forces from the Royal Italian Army and the Regia Aeronautica persisted.
Italian Invasion and Military Campaigns
The invasion opened from colonial staging grounds in Eritrea and Italian Somaliland with expeditions led by commanders such as Vittorio Ambrosio and Rodolfo Graziani, employing corps elements from units like the Corpo Truppe Volontarie and elements of the Regia Marina. Major engagements included the First Battle of Tembien, Second Battle of Tembien, Battle of Amba Aradam, and the Battle of Maychew, pitting Ethiopian commanders such as Ras Mulugeta Yeggazu and Ras Imru Haile Selassie against modernized Italian formations supported by aeroplanes of the Regia Aeronautica and mechanized units. Italian tactical use of combined arms, strategic bombing, and logistical dominance over Addis Ababa allowed fascist forces to occupy the capital on 5 May 1936, after which Victor Emmanuel III accepted the imperial title in November under Mussolini’s designs.
Atrocities and Use of Chemical Weapons
Italian offensive operations were accompanied by systematic atrocities, including massacres at sites such as Gondar and reprisals against civilians in Harar and the Ogaden, often directed by commanders like Rodolfo Graziani. The Regia Aeronautica and ground forces employed chemical agents including mustard gas in violation of the Geneva Protocol, leading to documented attacks at locations such as Aduwa front sectors and along supply routes. Reports of mass executions, deportations, and destruction of cultural heritage implicated units from the Voluntary Militia for National Security and colonial troops from Libyan and Eritrean contingents.
International Reaction and League of Nations Response
The League of Nations condemned the aggression and imposed limited sanctions orchestrated by members including the United Kingdom and France, while economic measures failed to include oil embargoes due to opposition by states such as the United States and Japan. Diplomatic maneuvers, including the controversial Hoare–Laval Pact proposal, revealed divisions among members of the League of Nations Council and the weakness of collective security against revisionist states. Ethiopia appealed directly to assemblies of the League of Nations and to public opinion in forums addressed by Haile Selassie at the League of Nations General Assembly, yet military assistance from powers such as the Soviet Union and France remained limited or covert.
Political and Administrative Changes under Occupation
Following the proclamation of Italian East Africa by Benito Mussolini, the annexation merged Eritrea, Italian Somaliland, and Ethiopia into a colonial administration under a Viceroy, reorganizing provinces into entities like Scioa Governorate and Amhara Governorate. Italian authorities introduced settler policies, infrastructure plans, and legal ordinances modeled on fascist institutions including the National Fascist Party, seeking to integrate the territory into Italy’s imperial system. The occupation instituted racial segregation laws, land expropriations, and the establishment of garrison towns, while installing collaborators such as Bashah Abebe Aregai-opposed local administrators.
Resistance and Ethiopian Exile Government
Ethiopian resistance coalesced into irregular guerrilla bands commonly known as the Arbegnoch (Patriots) operating across regions like Wollo, Gojjam, and Gondar, led by figures including Ras Imru Haile Selassie, Abebe Aregai, and Haile Selassie loyalists in exile. The imperial government in exile, headed by Haile Selassie from bases in Geneva and later in Keren, sought diplomatic recognition and material support from allies including the United Kingdom and elements of the Free French and Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church. Resistance tactics ranged from sabotage of Italian lines of communication to coordination with British Empire forces during the eventual East African Campaign.
Aftermath and Legacy (1936–1941)
The occupation’s lasting impacts included demographic disruptions in Addis Ababa, international debates over the efficacy of the League of Nations, and the acceleration of antifascist cooperation among the United Kingdom, Free France, and Kingdom of Italy opponents. Ethiopian liberation began with the East African Campaign launched by the British Indian Army and Commonwealth forces in 1940–1941, culminating in the restoration of Haile Selassie in 1941 after battles at Keren and Gojjam and subsequent withdrawal of Italian East Africa administrators. The episode influenced postwar decolonization, the strengthening of the United Nations, and Ethiopia’s postwar role in organizations such as the United Nations and the Organization of African Unity.
Category:Second Italo-Ethiopian War Category:Italian East Africa Category:Interwar Africa