Desert Storm (1991)
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| Desert Storm (1991) | |
|---|---|
| Conflict | Desert Storm (1991) |
| Partof | Gulf War |
| Date | January 17 – February 28, 1991 |
| Place | Persian Gulf, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia |
| Result | Coalition victory; liberation of Kuwait |
| Combatant1 | United States, United Kingdom, France, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, Syria, Canada, Italy, Australia, Kuwait (government-in-exile), Netherlands, Belgium, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Morocco, Qatar, United Arab Emirates, Oman |
| Combatant2 | Iraq |
| Commander1 | George H. W. Bush, Norman Schwarzkopf Jr., Colin Powell, H. Norman Schwarzkopf, Richard D. Cherwitz |
| Commander2 | Saddam Hussein, Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri, Ali Hassan al-Majid |
| Strength1 | Coalition forces (~540,000 troops) |
| Strength2 | Iraqi forces (~1,000,000 troops) |
Desert Storm (1991) was the combat phase of the Gulf War waged by a United States-led coalition to expel Iraq from Kuwait following the 1990 invasion. The operation combined strategic air strikes, naval operations, and a brief ground offensive, resulting in the liberation of Kuwait City and major damage to Iraqi military infrastructure. Political, diplomatic, and economic pressure from bodies such as the United Nations and leaders including George H. W. Bush framed the conflict amid Cold War-era realignments involving Mikhail Gorbachev and François Mitterrand.
Background and Causes
Iraq's invasion of Kuwait on August 2, 1990, under the direction of Saddam Hussein followed a period of strained relations after the Iran–Iraq War and disputes over oil production tied to Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries decisions and alleged debt relief from Kuwait. Territorial claims invoked historical assertions regarding Al Jawf and the Rumaila field while accusations of economic warfare and slant drilling heightened tensions with states such as Saudi Arabia and United Arab Emirates. Regional rivalries involving Iran, Syria, Turkey, and transnational concerns about Israel and access to the Strait of Hormuz motivated strategic responses from capitals like Washington, D.C., London, Paris, and Moscow. The United Nations Security Council adopted resolutions demanding Iraqi withdrawal and authorizing collective measures, reflecting diplomatic pressure from permanent members including United Kingdom and United States.
Buildup and Coalition Formation
Following UN Security Council Resolution 678, the U.S. Department of Defense initiated Operation Desert Shield to deter further Iraqi aggression and to assemble a multinational force on the Persian Gulf littoral. Senior leaders such as Norman Schwarzkopf Jr. coordinated deployments with chiefs from CENTCOM, NATO-aligned militaries, and regional partners including Egypt and Syria, producing one of the largest post–World War II coalitions. Diplomatic efforts by James Baker and envoys from United Nations missions secured basing rights in Saudi Arabia, logistics support from Kuwait exiles, and contributions from countries like Canada, Italy, Australia, Pakistan, and France. Economic sanctions implemented under UN resolutions and oil-for-peace debates involved actors such as International Monetary Fund and World Bank discussions.
Conduct of Operations
The coalition campaign integrated air, sea, and land components under a unified command structure led by H. Norman Schwarzkopf and strategic direction by Colin Powell. Naval task forces enforced maritime interdiction and launched Tomahawk strikes, while combined arms formations prepared for a ground assault. Intelligence collection from National Reconnaissance Office, CIA, and allied signals units informed targeting alongside reconnaissance by platforms such as U-2 and RC-135. Psychological operations and information campaigns targeted Iraqi command cohesion, involving broadcasters and diplomatic channels including Voice of America and BBC reports. Legal and humanitarian advisories referenced UN Charter mandates and concerns raised by organizations like International Committee of the Red Cross.
Air Campaign
From January 17, 1991 a coalition air campaign sought air superiority and systematic degradation of Iraq's command, control, air defenses, and logistics. Strike packages using aircraft such as the F-15, F-16, F/A-18, Tornado, Mirage 2000, and F-111 executed precision attacks with munitions including laser-guided bombs, GPS-guided weapons, and Tomahawk cruise missiles. Suppression of enemy air defenses targeted sites tied to the S-75 Dvina and S-125 Neva systems while electronic warfare platforms including EF-111 Raven and EA-6B Prowler countered radar networks. Targets encompassed Republican Guard formations, Al-Rashid command centers, Iraqi airfields near Basra and Tikrit, and infrastructure nodes linked to oil facilities. Coalition air interdiction synchronized with reconnaissance from AWACS and tanker support by KC-135 to enable sustained operations.
Ground Campaign
A decisive ground offensive beginning on February 24, 1991 executed maneuver operations by armored and mechanized formations including VII Corps and XVIII Airborne Corps elements. Coalition forces conducted flanking movements, breaching defensive belts, and engaging outright with elements of the Iraqi Republican Guard including divisions named for Hammurabi and Medina. Combined arms doctrine paired M1 Abrams tanks, M2 Bradley infantry fighting vehicles, Challenger 1 tanks, and artillery such as the M109 Paladin to achieve rapid advances. Special operations units from Delta Force, SAS, and allied commando units executed sabotage and reconnaissance missions behind Iraqi lines. The ground campaign liberated Kuwait City within days and culminated in ceasefire declarations mediated via UN channels.
Iraqi Response and Scorched Earth Crisis
As coalition forces advanced, Iraqi forces executed a scorched earth policy by igniting hundreds of oil wells in the Kuwaiti oil fields and releasing large quantities of crude into the Persian Gulf, provoking an environmental disaster involving plumes of smoke, tar mats, and marine pollution affecting coasts of Bahrain, Iran, and Saudi Arabia. Humanitarian impacts included civilian displacement, fires in urban areas such as Kuwait City, and incidents involving chemical weapons fears that engaged inspectors from United Nations Special Commission and later the UNSCOM process. International relief coordination involved agencies such as United Nations Environment Programme and NGOs responding to air, soil, and water contamination.
Aftermath and Consequences
The conflict ended with a ceasefire and UN Security Council resolutions imposing disarmament obligations, no-fly zones over northern Iraq and southern Iraq, and mechanisms for weapons inspections involving UNSCOM and the International Atomic Energy Agency. Saddam Hussein remained in power in Baghdad, subject to sanctions and ongoing inspections that influenced relations with France, Russia, and China at the United Nations. Regional security architectures were reshaped, with long-term effects on oil markets coordinated through OPEC and global geopolitics influencing later operations such as Iraq War (2003). Environmental remediation, war crimes investigations, and veteran health issues prompted studies by institutions including National Academy of Sciences and continuing legal and political debates in capitals like Washington, D.C. and London.