Deforestation of the Amazon
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| Deforestation of the Amazon | |
|---|---|
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| Name | Amazon deforestation |
| Caption | Satellite view of cleared areas in the Amazon Basin |
| Location | Amazon Basin, Brazil, Peru, Colombia, Bolivia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Guyana, Suriname |
| Area cleared | Variable (millions of hectares) |
| Causes | Cattle ranching, Agriculture, Logging, Infrastructure development |
| Status | Ongoing |
Deforestation of the Amazon Deforestation of the Amazon refers to large-scale clearing of forest in the Amazon Basin across Brazil, Peru, Colombia, Bolivia, Venezuela, Ecuador, Guyana, and Suriname. The phenomenon involves interactions among actors such as soy producers, beef producers, timber companies, smallholders, and state projects like the Trans-Amazonian Highway and regional development programs. International negotiations and institutions including the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, World Bank, European Union, Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organization, and G7 have engaged with policies responding to forest loss.
Overview
Deforestation in the Amazon accelerated with frontier expansion tied to projects like the Trans-Amazonian Highway, the Ferrogrão rail proposals, and settlement schemes introduced by political figures such as former presidents of Brazil including Fernando Henrique Cardoso and Jair Bolsonaro. Scientific assessments from institutions such as the National Institute for Space Research (INPE), NASA, European Space Agency, IPCC, and WRI document trends in clearance driven by actors ranging from multinational agribusiness groups like Cargill and Bunge to artisanal logging networks associated with firms and actors in ports such as Belém and Manaus. Indigenous territories governed by organizations like the Coordination of Indigenous Organizations of the Amazon River Basin (COICA) and protected areas managed through the Amazon Region Protected Areas Program are central to spatial patterns of loss.
Causes
Drivers include expansion of cattle ranching promoted by agribusiness conglomerates including JBS S.A., soy cultivation tied to commodity traders such as ADM and Louis Dreyfus Company, mechanized agriculture in states like Mato Grosso, and illegal logging networks intersecting with criminal groups and actors linked to ports in Pará and Amazonas. Infrastructure projects such as the Trans-Amazonian Highway and hydropower dams like Belo Monte Dam enable access alongside mining booms for gold and minerals linked to companies operating in regions near Tapajós National Forest and Madre de Dios. Policy incentives implemented during administrations including Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva (first term), Michel Temer, and Jair Bolsonaro affected enforcement by agencies like IBAMA and the Public Prosecutor's Office (Brazil), while rural credit programs and land titling initiatives influenced land-use change in states such as Rondônia and Acre.
Environmental and Climatic Impacts
Forest clearing alters carbon stocks monitored by projects such as REDD+ under the UNFCCC, impacting global carbon budgets examined by the IPCC and research groups at Woods Hole Research Center and INPE. Loss of primary forest affects biodiversity documented in field studies by Conservation International, WWF, IUCN, and academic institutions including University of Oxford, University of São Paulo, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, and National Geographic Society. Regional climate feedbacks influence rainfall patterns linked to studies from CENBIO, FAPESP, NOAA, and European Commission models, while rivers such as the Amazon River, Madeira River, and Xingu River experience hydrological changes affecting floodplain ecosystems like the Varzea and species including harpy eagle and Amazon river dolphin.
Socioeconomic and Cultural Effects
Deforestation affects indigenous peoples represented by organizations like COICA and groups such as the Kayapó, Yanomami, Asháninka, and Ticuna, with impacts on customary territories recognized under rulings by courts such as the Supreme Federal Court (Brazil). Frontier economies involve actors including local cooperatives, multinational traders like Amaggi, and finance providers such as the International Finance Corporation and commercial banks in São Paulo. Health outcomes tracked by agencies like Pan American Health Organization and Ministry of Health (Brazil) link land-use change to zoonotic risk discussed in literature involving EcoHealth Alliance and One Health collaborations. Cultural heritage in locations such as Marajó Island and archaeological sites documented by IPHAN are affected by land conversion.
Legal, Policy, and Governance Responses
National policies include Brazil’s environmental regulations enforced by IBAMA and land registries like the Rural Environmental Registry (CAR), while supranational mechanisms involve REDD+, finance pledges from entities such as the Amazon Fund financed by Norway and Germany, and supply-chain commitments made by corporate platforms like the Soy Moratorium and the Amazon Soy Moratorium. Litigation efforts have engaged domestic courts and international bodies including the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights, and governance reforms have been promoted through forums like the Amazon Cooperation Treaty Organization and conferences of parties to the UNFCCC.
Monitoring, Data, and Remote Sensing
Satellite monitoring by INPE (PRODES), Global Forest Watch run by WRI in partnership with University of Maryland, NASA’s Landsat and MODIS programs, and initiatives from European Space Agency (Sentinel) provide near-real-time alerts such as GLAD alerts. Academic groups at University of Maryland, Oxford University, Boston University, and research centers like CPTEC and Instituto Socioambiental analyze land-cover change using machine learning and time-series methods developed with tools from Google Earth Engine and funded by foundations including the Gates Foundation and MacArthur Foundation.
Mitigation, Restoration, and Sustainable Alternatives
Mitigation strategies include strengthened enforcement by IBAMA, finance mechanisms like REDD+ and the Amazon Fund, certification schemes by Rainforest Alliance and FSC, and supply-chain traceability promoted by traders such as Cargill and Bunge. Restoration programs involve reforestation projects led by NGOs including The Nature Conservancy, WWF, Conservation International, and community initiatives supported by institutions like Embrapa and research from INPA. Sustainable alternatives encompass agroforestry models advanced by Embrapa and universities, payments for ecosystem services piloted by subnational governments in Pará and Acre, and commodity sourcing commitments from retailers such as Tesco and Marks & Spencer.