Decree of War to the Death

Decree of War to the Death was a proclamation issued in 1813 by Simón Bolívar during the Venezuelan War of Independence that authorized harsh measures against Spaniards and loyalists. The decree sought to consolidate revolutionary authority following the First Republic of Venezuela collapse and the Parrilla Campaign, aiming to deter royalist resistance and to rally support from Criollo and Mestizo populations. It became a focal point for debates involving figures such as Francisco de Miranda, Santiago Mariño, José Antonio Páez, and institutions like the Patriotic Society.

Background and context

The decree emerged amid the collapse of the First Republic of Venezuela after the Capitulation of San Mateo and the Spanish reconquest led by commanders tied to the Royalist forces of New Spain and the Cádiz Regency. After the Battle of La Victoria (1812) and the execution of insurgent cadres, Bolívar mounted the Admirable Campaign from New Granada to liberate Caracas, coordinating with leaders from Cartagena de Indias, Bogotá, and provincial juntas in Barcelona, Venezuela and Cumaná. Political pressure from the Congress of Angostura, disputes with Francisco de Miranda’s sympathizers, and incidents involving troops associated with Pablo Morillo and Mariano Montilla shaped a context of reprisals and civil insecurity across the provinces of Venezuela (colonial) and New Granada.

Text and provisions of the decree

The decree’s text declared that Spaniards and Canary Islanders who did not actively support the independence cause would be treated as enemies, while pardons would be offered to those who joined the patriots. It drew on legal traditions from documents like the Spanish Constitution of 1812 and revolutionary instruments such as the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen by invoking emergency powers similar to proclamations by George Washington and Maximilien Robespierre in wartime contexts. The document used categories including “peninsulares” and “criollos” to distinguish status, referencing precedents in correspondence between Bolívar and figures like Juan Germán Roscio and Antonio José de Sucre. Provisions promised property seizure, expulsion, or execution for persistent resistance, while offering indemnities and restoration for patriots’ supporters from provinces such as Barinas, Guayana, and Zulia.

Implementation and conduct during the Venezuelan War of Independence

Implementation varied across theaters—Maracaibo saw different practices than Valencia (Venezuela), as commanders like Santiago Mariño and José Félix Ribas interpreted the decree differently from Bolívar’s centralists. Instances of summary execution, confiscation of estates linked to families such as the Boves faction, and reprisals after battles including the Battle of Vigirima and the Siege of Puerto Cabello drew contestation. Royalist commanders including José Tomás Boves, Miguel de la Torre, and Pablo Morillo responded with their own measures, while civilians in Mérida (Venezuela), San Felipe de Puerto Cabello, and Trujillo, Venezuela suffered forced migrations and property losses. The decree’s implementation intersected with military events like the Battle of San Mateo (1812), the Capture of Caracas (1813), and later campaigns culminating in the Battle of Carabobo (1821), affecting troops including veterans of the British Legions and the Legion of the Andes.

International and legal reactions

International observers in London, Paris, and Philadelphia debated the decree, with diplomats from the United Kingdom, the United States, and the French Directory monitoring implications for commerce and recognition. Spanish authorities, including the Cortes of Cádiz and the Bourbon monarchy, condemned the proclamation and used it in diplomatic protests to the Holy Alliance and envoys such as Pedro Gual and Luis López Méndez. Legal scholars compared the decree to norms in the Law of Nations articulated by jurists like Emer de Vattel and debated its conformity with emerging doctrines adopted at the Congress of Vienna. Press commentary in papers like the Gaceta de Caracas and the Gazette de France highlighted humanitarian concerns, while naval powers adjusted convoy and blockade policies in ports like Puerto Cabello and La Guaira.

Legacy and historiography

Historiography on the decree divides scholars: some emphasize Bolívar’s strategic rationale in works by Eduardo Galeano and Tulio Halperín Donghi, others criticize its moral and legal consequences in studies by John Lynch and Simón Rodríguez’s biographical traditions. It influenced later republican legislation in the Gran Colombia period and debates during the Federal War (Venezuela) and the formation of institutions like the Supreme Court of Justice of Venezuela. Cultural representations appear in novels by Rómulo Gallegos, plays about Manuela Sáenz, and art depicting campaigns with figures such as Antonio José de Sucre, shaping national memory in museums like the Museo Bolivariano de Caracas and ceremonies on Independence Day (Venezuela). Contemporary legal scholars contrast the decree with transitional justice frameworks appearing in post-conflict commissions in Chile and Colombia, while political historians assess its role in Bolívar’s transformation from insurgent commander to statesman during the age of revolutions.

Category:Venezuelan War of Independence