Courts of the United States

Courts of the United States
Name	Courts of the United States
Caption	United States Supreme Court building, Washington, D.C.
Established	1789
Type	Federal and state judiciaries

Contents

Courts of the United States are the collection of federal, state, territorial, and specialized tribunals that adjudicate legal disputes arising under the United States Constitution, federal statutes such as the Judiciary Act of 1789, and state constitutions like the Constitution of California and the New York State Constitution. The system includes the Supreme Court of the United States, the United States Courts of Appeals, and the United States District Courts, as well as state supreme courts such as the Supreme Court of California, New York Court of Appeals, and the Texas Supreme Court, and specialized bodies like the United States Court of Federal Claims and the United States Tax Court.

Overview and Jurisdiction

The allocation of authority among tribunals involves the Supremacy Clause in the United States Constitution, federal statutes like the Judiciary Act of 1789, and doctrines from seminal opinions such as Marbury v. Madison, McCulloch v. Maryland, and Brown v. Board of Education. Federal jurisdiction includes cases under federal question jurisdiction exemplified by Wickard v. Filburn and diversity jurisdiction reflected in decisions such as Erie Railroad Co. v. Tompkins, while state courts handle matters governed by statutes like the California Civil Code and the New York Penal Law. Concurrent jurisdiction appears in disputes involving parties from different states such as those seen in International Shoe Co. v. Washington and in federal statutory schemes like the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Robinson-Patman Act.

The federal judiciary is structured under Article III and consists of the Supreme Court of the United States, regional United States Circuit Courts of Appeals including the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit and the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit, and trial-level United States District Courts such as the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York and the United States District Court for the District of Columbia. Specialized federal tribunals address patent disputes in line with Diamond v. Chakrabarty and bankruptcy cases under the Bankruptcy Reform Act of 1978 through the United States Bankruptcy Courts; claims against the federal government are heard in the United States Court of Federal Claims, and tax controversies in the United States Tax Court. The Supreme Court exercises discretionary review via the writ of certiorari as in Roe v. Wade and resolves circuit splits like those in Chevron U.S.A., Inc. v. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc..

State judiciaries such as the Supreme Court of California, Florida Supreme Court, Illinois Supreme Court, and Ohio Supreme Court resolve criminal prosecutions under statutes like the California Penal Code and civil disputes under codes such as the Texas Civil Practice and Remedies Code. Trial courts include superior courts like the Los Angeles County Superior Court, county courts such as the Cook County Circuit Court, and municipal courts found in cities like New York City and Chicago, while territorial courts operate in jurisdictions including Puerto Rico, the District of Columbia Court of Appeals, and the Supreme Court of Guam. State-level appellate review produces influential rulings like People v. O.J. Simpson and uniform law adoption such as the Uniform Commercial Code and the Uniform Probate Code.

Court administration encompasses docket management practices in the Federal Judicial Center, rules such as the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure, the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure, and the Federal Rules of Appellate Procedure, and case assignment procedures used in circuits like the Second Circuit. Procedures include motions practice illustrated in cases like Ashcroft v. Iqbal, discovery governed by the Federal Rules of Evidence, and jury processes consistent with precedents such as Batson v. Kentucky. Administrative functions are supported by entities including the Administrative Office of the United States Courts, the Judicial Conference of the United States, and the Office of Legal Counsel.

Federal judges are nominated by the President of the United States and confirmed by the United States Senate pursuant to Article II, with landmark confirmations involving figures such as John Roberts, Ruth Bader Ginsburg, Antonin Scalia, Clarence Thomas, and Sonia Sotomayor; lifetime tenure under Article III is subject to impeachment as in the cases of Samuel Chase and Alcee Hastings. State judicial selection varies: gubernatorial appointment as in New Jersey, partisan elections in Pennsylvania, merit selection inspired by the Missouri Plan and retention elections in jurisdictions including Missouri and Arizona. Ethical rules are enforced through codes like the Code of Conduct for United States Judges and through oversight bodies such as state judicial conduct commissions and the Department of Justice in instances of misconduct or criminal referral.