Communal violence in India

Communal violence in India
Title	Communal violence in India
Date	Various (18th century–present)
Place	Indian subcontinent
Causes	Religious, political, social, economic, regional
Fatalities	Tens of thousands (est.)
Perpetrators	Various Hindu nationalist organizations, Muslim organizations, Sikh militants, Christian groups, tribal militias, state forces

Communal violence in India refers to episodes of inter-communal conflict, riots, and targeted attacks between communities identified by religion, ethnicity, caste, or regional affiliation. Scholars, journalists, and human rights organizations have documented patterns across the periods of the Mughal Empire, the British Raj, partition-era conflicts centred on 1947 Partition of India, and post-independence incidents such as the 1984 Anti-Sikh riots, the 1992–1993 Bombay riots and Bombay bombings, and the 2002 Gujarat riots. These events intersect with institutions such as the Indian National Congress, the Bharatiya Janata Party, and the All-India Muslim League, shaping public debate on citizenship, secularism, and minority rights.

Overview and Definitions

Communal violence denotes violent clashes involving identifiable groups such as Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, Jains, Buddhists, and Tribal communities. Researchers at institutions like the Sachar Committee and the National Human Rights Commission (India) use datasets including the Indian Penal Code classifications, police records, and NGO reports to differentiate riots, pogroms, massacres, and targeted killings. Terminology often draws on case law from the Supreme Court of India and commissions such as the Srikrishna Commission and the Nanavati Commission.

Historical Background and Patterns

Pre-modern conflicts between polities such as the Mughal Empire and the Maratha Empire featured sectarian elements that later merged with colonial-era tensions under the British East India Company and the British Raj. The politicization of religious identity escalated during movements led by the Indian National Congress and the All-India Muslim League, culminating in the 1947 Partition of India—a watershed producing communal massacres and mass displacement. Post-independence, episodes such as the 1969 Gujarat riots, the 1984 Anti-Sikh riots following the assassination of Indira Gandhi, and the 2002 Gujarat riots reveal recurring patterns: localized triggers, rumor propagation via media like Doordarshan and print press, and the involvement of state actors and paramilitary forces like the Central Reserve Police Force.

Causes and Triggers

Multiple drivers converge: political mobilization by parties such as the Bharatiya Jana Sangh and later the Bharatiya Janata Party; communal agendas promoted by organizations like the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh and the Vishwa Hindu Parishad; reactions by groups including the All India United Democratic Front and the Students Islamic Movement of India; and socioeconomic stresses in regions like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Kashmir, and West Bengal. Specific triggers have included the demolition of the Babri Masjid at Ayodhya in 1992, the visit of political leaders to disputed sites, contested processions such as those on Muharram, and incidents like the Godhra train burning. Media transmission via outlets such as Times of India and communal narratives amplified by networks including Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad have intensified mobilization.

Major Incidents and Case Studies

Well-documented incidents include the 1947 Partition of India massacres, the 1969 Gujarat riots, the 1984 Anti-Sikh riots, the 1992–1993 Bombay riots and Bombay bombings, and the 2002 Gujarat riots, each investigated by tribunals and commissions like the Liberhan Commission and the Nanavati Commission. Regional case studies examine episodes in Kashmir involving Mujahideen and state forces such as the Border Security Force, communal clashes in Assam linked to the National Register of Citizens debates, and violence in Mangalore and Orissa tied to disputes over conversions and temple histories involving organizations like the Bajrang Dal.

Legal Framework and State Response

India’s responses involve criminal law under the Indian Penal Code, preventive legislation like the Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973 sections on unlawful assemblies, and public order statutes administered by state police forces and agencies such as the National Investigation Agency. Commissions of inquiry—Srikrishna Commission, Liberhan Commission, Nanavati-Shah Commission—and judgments of the Supreme Court of India have clarified state liability, compensation, and policing standards. Constitutional provisions—Articles concerning fundamental rights and the directive principles—along with statutes like the Protection of Civil Rights Act and the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act frame remedies, while institutions such as the National Human Rights Commission (India) monitor violations.

Socioeconomic and Political Impacts

Communal episodes have caused displacement in regions like Punjab, Haryana, and Gujarat, altering demographics, property rights adjudicated in courts such as various High Courts of India, and economic outcomes for communities dependent on markets in Mumbai and Kolkata. Politically, riots have reshaped electoral fortunes for parties like the Indian National Congress and the Bharatiya Janata Party, influenced policies on citizenship debates involving NRC processes, and affected diaspora relations with countries such as the United Kingdom and the United States. Long-term consequences include inter-generational trauma, segregation in urban wards, and litigation before bodies like the International Commission of Jurists.

Prevention, Reconciliation, and Policy Measures

Measures pursued include policing reforms recommended by committees such as the Punchhi Commission, community policing experiments in cities like Bengaluru, and peace-building by NGOs such as Citizens for Justice and Peace and Magistrates' associations. Legislative reforms, judicial accountability through the Supreme Court of India, and educational interventions in curricula influenced by institutions like the University Grants Commission aim to promote pluralism. Reconciliation initiatives—truth commissions, local mediation by religious organizations such as the All India Hindu Mahasabha and interfaith groups—alongside economic development programs in affected districts are part of multi-pronged strategies to reduce recurrence.

Category:History of India