China (1937–1945)

China (1937–1945)
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Name	China (1937–1945)
Era	Second Sino-Japanese War, World War II
Start	1937
End	1945
Caption	Marco Polo Bridge, site of the 1937 incident near Beiping

China (1937–1945) was the theater of the Second Sino-Japanese War that merged into the Second World War in Asia, transforming Chinese Kuomintang-ruled territories, Chinese Communist Party bases, and Japanese-occupied areas. The period saw major battles such as the Battle of Shanghai, large-scale atrocities exemplified by the Nanjing Massacre, shifting alliances involving United States, Soviet Union, and United Kingdom, and an intensification of the Chinese Civil War dynamics between Chiang Kai-shek and Mao Zedong.

Background: Political and Social Conditions before 1937

By the mid-1930s the Republic of China under Chiang Kai-shek faced fragmentation among warlord cliques like the Zhili Clique and Fengtian Clique, tension with the Chinese Communist Party after the Long March, and foreign pressures from the Empire of Japan following the Mukden Incident and establishment of Manchukuo. Urban centers such as Shanghai and Nanjing contrasted with rural strongholds like the Jiangxi Soviet and the Yan'an Rectification Movement area; influential figures included Zhang Xueliang, Wang Jingwei, Soong Mei-ling, and intellectuals around the New Life Movement. Economic strains involved interactions with the Central Bank of China, foreign concessions such as the International Settlement, and trade links to Hong Kong and Tianjin.

Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945)

The conflict began with clashes at the Marco Polo Bridge and escalated into full-scale war with the Battle of Shanghai and the fall of Nanjing, followed by the Wuhan Campaign and prolonged guerrilla warfare. The invasion brought imperial policy from Imperial Japanese Army leaders like Iwane Matsui and administrators in occupied areas such as the Reorganized National Government of China led by Wang Jingwei. Chinese resistance involved conventional forces of the National Revolutionary Army and irregular forces of the Eighth Route Army and New Fourth Army affiliated with the Chinese Communist Party under commanders like Zhu De and Peng Dehuai.

Military Campaigns and Battles

Major engagements included the Battle of Shanghai, the Battle of Taiyuan, the Battle of Nanjing, the Battle of Xuzhou, and the prolonged Battle of Changsha series; the Hundred Regiments Offensive marked a major Eighth Route Army operation. The Battle of West Hubei, Central Plains Theatre actions, and the Ichigo Offensive revealed Japanese strategic aims, while Chinese counteroffensives around Yunnan and support from Flying Tigers volunteers led by Claire Lee Chennault aided air operations. Soviet involvement in 1945 included the Soviet invasion of Manchuria confronting the Kwantung Army, influencing subsequent occupations of cities such as Harbin and Mukden.

Political Leadership and Governmental Responses

Chiang Kai-shek and the Kuomintang maintained the Nationalist Government in wartime capitals including Wuhan and later Chongqing, instituting strategies combining defense, strategic withdrawal, and appeals to international partners like the United States and United Kingdom. The Chinese Communist Party consolidated control in the Shaanxi base at Yan'an, pursued united front policies, and expanded rural governance through land reforms and mobilization campaigns. Collaborationist administrations such as Wang Jingwei's regime attempted to administer occupied provinces, while figures like H. H. Kung and T. V. Soong managed fiscal and diplomatic outreach.

Economic and Social Impact

War-induced disruption devastated industrial centers including Shanghai and Wuhan, disrupted railway networks like the Beijing–Hankou Railway, and led to hyperinflation managed by institutions such as the Ministry of Finance (Republic of China). Refugee flows to interior locations such as Kunming and Chongqing were immense; famines struck regions tied to campaigns in Henan and Shaanxi. Japanese resource policies and forced labor programs affected industries tied to Manchukuo and companies like South Manchuria Railway Company, while wartime aid through mechanisms like the Lend-Lease Act and agencies including the United States Army Forces China-Burma-India Theater attempted to stabilize supply.

Resistance, Collaboration, and Civilian Experience

Resistance ranged from regular National Revolutionary Army units to guerrilla warfare by the New Fourth Army and Eighth Route Army, with local militias and secret societies also active in provinces such as Sichuan, Hubei, and Hebei. Collaboration involved Chinese figures who worked with Japanese authorities in Nanjing and Shanghai, provoking internal divisions and trials after 1945. Civilians endured atrocities like the Nanjing Massacre, chemical weapon use documented by units such as those linked to Unit 731, and social upheaval reflected in refugee camps, wartime hospitals such as those connected to Dr. Norman Bethune, and religious institutions including Catholic Church in China and Buddhist temples offering relief.

International Relations and Allied Support

China held seat status among Allied powers with representation at conferences such as Cairo Conference and participation in diplomatic arrangements including the United Nations Conference on International Organization. Military and material assistance arrived from the United States (via Lend-Lease, Flying Tigers), the Soviet Union (arms and 1945 intervention), and limited British support from Hong Kong and Burma Campaign logistics involving General Joseph Stilwell. Postwar negotiations addressed issues tied to Japan surrender terms, repatriation of POWs, and jurisdiction over war crimes tribunals such as actions pursued by the International Military Tribunal for the Far East and Chinese war crimes commissions.

Category:Second Sino-Japanese War Category:Republic of China (1912–1949)