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| Battery (electricity) | |
|---|---|
| Name | Battery (electricity) |
| Type | Electrochemical cell assembly |
| Inventor | Alessandro Volta (pioneering) |
| Introduced | 1800 |
Battery (electricity) A battery is a device that stores chemical energy and converts it to electrical energy through electrochemical reactions. Batteries power devices from portable electronics to International Space Station systems and Electric vehicles, and underpin grids, Apollo program missions, and portable United States Navy equipment. Development spans early experiments by Alessandro Volta and Luigi Galvani to modern work by Tesla, Inc., Panasonic Corporation, and academic groups at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Stanford University, and University of Cambridge.
Batteries consist of one or more electrochemical cells, each containing an anode, cathode, electrolyte, and separator; assemblies range from single-cell designs used in Sony consumer products to large-scale packs in Nissan Leaf and Chevrolet Volt vehicles. Primary batteries (non-rechargeable) and secondary batteries (rechargeable) serve distinct markets such as Duracell alkaline cells for small electronics and LG Chem lithium-ion modules for GMC Hummer EV systems. Standards and safety are governed by institutions like International Electrotechnical Commission, Underwriters Laboratories, and regulatory frameworks in the European Union and United States Department of Transportation.
Early phenomena observed by Luigi Galvani influenced Alessandro Volta to invent the voltaic pile in 1800, an arrangement of metal discs and electrolytes that inspired later chemists such as John Frederic Daniell who developed the Daniell cell and Gaston Planté who created the lead–acid accumulator. 19th-century advances by Georges Leclanché, Camille Alphonse Faure, and companies like Edison Laboratories led to diverse chemistries used in telegraphy and submarine power. The 20th century saw commercialization by Eveready, innovations at Bell Labs, and a lithium chemistry revolution following work by Stanley Whittingham, John B. Goodenough, and Akira Yoshino, culminating in widespread lithium-ion adoption by companies such as Sony and Panasonic Corporation.
Electrochemical energy conversion in batteries arises from redox reactions where electrons flow through an external circuit while ions move through an electrolyte; classic examples include the zinc–carbon cell, the nickel–cadmium system developed by Waldemar Jungner, the nickel–metal hydride cells used by Toyota in hybrid vehicles, and lithium-ion cells pioneered by Sony. Anodes (negative electrodes) and cathodes (positive electrodes) employ materials such as graphite, lithium cobalt oxide, lithium iron phosphate, lead dioxide, manganese dioxide, nickel oxyhydroxide, and silver oxide; electrolytes may be aqueous acids or alkaline solutions, organic carbonate solvents with lithium salts, solid electrolytes studied at Oak Ridge National Laboratory and Argonne National Laboratory, or polymer matrices explored at Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Charge and discharge processes correspond to intercalation, conversion, or plating reactions described in publications from Nature and Science.
Batteries are classified by chemistry, form factor, and function: primary chemistries include alkaline, silver oxide, and lithium metal cells used by Apple Inc. devices; secondary chemistries include lead–acid (used by General Motors and Boeing), nickel–cadmium (formerly used in Boeing 747 backups), nickel–metal hydride (popularized by Toyota Prius), and lithium-ion variants (used by Tesla, Inc. and Rivian). Emerging classes include solid-state batteries pursued by QuantumScape and flow batteries commercialized by Redflow and researched at Pacific Northwest National Laboratory. Form factors range from coin cells standardized by International Organization for Standardization to prismatic and cylindrical cells common in Tesla Gigafactory packs.
Key metrics include energy density, power density, cycle life, self-discharge, Coulombic efficiency, internal resistance, and thermal stability—parameters optimized differently by makers such as Samsung SDI and LG Energy Solution. Energy density influences range in Electric vehicles and runtime in Dell laptops; power density affects acceleration in Formula E and peak output in United States Air Force applications. Cycle life and calendar life determine replacement intervals for grid storage projects by AES Corporation and NextEra Energy Resources. Safety concerns—thermal runaway, dendrite formation, and gas evolution—are central to incidents investigated by National Transportation Safety Board and mitigation strategies developed by National Renewable Energy Laboratory.
Battery manufacture integrates electrode coating, cell assembly, electrolyte filling, formation cycling, and pack assembly in facilities such as the Tesla Gigafactory and plants owned by CATL, LG Chem, and Panasonic Corporation. Material supply chains hinge on mining and refinement of lithium from sources in Chile and Australia, cobalt from Democratic Republic of the Congo, nickel from Indonesia, and graphite from China. Recycling infrastructures by companies like Umicore and policy initiatives by the European Commission address resource recovery and lifecycle impacts; research at institutions like Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory targets reduced cobalt or cobalt-free cathodes.
Batteries power consumer electronics from Samsung smartphones to Sony PlayStation consoles, enable transportation in Tesla, Inc. cars and Airbus electric aircraft concepts, support grid services for utilities like Duke Energy, and enable backup power in hospitals and NASA missions. Safety protocols involve standards from International Electrotechnical Commission, packaging rules by United States Department of Transportation, and incident response informed by Federal Aviation Administration guidance. Advances in fast charging, second-life reuse for stationary storage by companies like Siemens and ABB, and regulatory frameworks in regions such as the European Union shape deployment across sectors.
Category:Electrochemical cells