Battery

Battery
Name	Battery

Battery A battery is a device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy through electrochemical reactions. Batteries have been central to the development of technologies from telegraphy and Industrial Revolution machinery to Smartphones and Electric Vehicle propulsion, influencing institutions such as General Electric, Siemens, Panasonic Corporation, and Tesla, Inc.. Modern battery research intersects with projects at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Stanford University, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, and firms like Samsung Electronics and LG Chem.

Etymology and definition

The term derives from military usage in Napoleonic Wars artillery batteries and was adapted in the 19th century by inventors such as Alessandro Volta and Luigi Galvani to describe stacked electrochemical cells. Early adopters included researchers at Royal Society and industrialists in Birmingham (England), while legal definitions evolved in statutes debated in the United Kingdom Parliament and United States Congress. Definitions used by standards bodies like International Electrotechnical Commission and Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers specify cell chemistry, nominal voltage, and capacity.

History

Electrochemical phenomena were investigated by figures including Luigi Galvani, Alessandro Volta, William Nicholson, and Humphry Davy, culminating in Volta's pile demonstrated in correspondence with the Royal Society. 19th-century engineers such as Michael Faraday, John Frederic Daniell, Georges Leclanché, and industrialists at Siemens and Westinghouse Electric advanced practical cells for telegraphy, railways, and mining. In the 20th century, innovators at Bell Labs, General Motors, Sony Corporation, and Mitsubishi Electric contributed to nickel-based and lithium-based chemistries, while postwar programs at Argonne National Laboratory and Oak Ridge National Laboratory accelerated research for aerospace applications used by NASA and European Space Agency. The 21st century saw commercialization by Panasonic Corporation for Tesla, Inc. and large-scale deployments by utilities such as Pacific Gas and Electric Company and projects like Hornsdale Power Reserve.

Types and chemistries

Primary and secondary classifications were developed through work at Max Planck Institute and laboratories like Bell Labs. Common chemistries include lead–acid (used by General Motors), nickel–cadmium (historically by IBM), nickel–metal hydride (commercialized by Toyota Motor Corporation), lithium-ion variants pioneered by researchers at Sony Corporation and Stanford University, lithium-polymer cells used by Apple Inc. and Samsung Electronics, lithium iron phosphate advanced by BYD Company, solid-state concepts pursued at Toyota Motor Corporation and QuantumScape, and flow batteries exemplified by projects at Redflow and UniEnergy Technologies. Emerging chemistries under study at MIT and Argonne National Laboratory include sodium-ion, magnesium-ion, zinc-air, aluminum-ion, and lithium–sulfur systems.

Design and components

Cell construction traces to manufacturing techniques developed at DuPont and 3M. Key internal components—anode, cathode, separator, electrolyte, current collectors, and casing—are influenced by materials science groups at Oxford University, ETH Zurich, and companies like BASF and Umicore. Electrode fabrication methods from National Institute of Standards and Technology and coating processes used by Hitachi Chemical determine energy density and cycle life. Battery management systems designed by Bosch and Continental AG integrate sensors, balancing circuits, and thermal management informed by standards from Underwriters Laboratories and ISO.

Performance and testing

Performance metrics standardized by IEC and SAE International include specific energy, energy density, power density, cycle life, calendar life, internal resistance, and safety margins. Test protocols developed at National Renewable Energy Laboratory and Fraunhofer Society measure charge/discharge profiles, thermal runaway susceptibility assessed in studies supported by Department of Energy programs, and abuse tests used by FAA and Transportation Security Administration for transport safety. Accelerated aging, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, and nail penetration tests are practiced in laboratories at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and corporate R&D at Panasonic Corporation and Samsung SDI.

Applications and uses

Batteries enable portable electronics from Apple Inc. iPhone to Samsung Electronics Galaxy devices, power backup systems in data centers run by Google and Amazon Web Services, grid-scale storage projects such as Hornsdale Power Reserve and initiatives by Iberdrola, and propulsion in Tesla, Inc. and automotive programs at Toyota Motor Corporation and Volkswagen Group. They support medical devices produced by Medtronic and Johnson & Johnson, remote sensors deployed by National Aeronautics and Space Administration missions, and defense equipment used by United States Department of Defense and NATO partners. Portable power facilitated by companies like DeWalt and Makita Corporation transformed construction tools, while renewable energy integration is pursued by utilities such as E.ON and Enel.

Environmental and safety considerations

Lifecycle impacts are assessed in environmental impact analyses by United Nations Environment Programme and agencies like Environmental Protection Agency; supply chains involve mining operations in regions governed by entities such as Glencore and Rio Tinto. Recycling systems operated by Umicore and startups studied at Imperial College London address critical materials recovery for cobalt, lithium, nickel, and rare earths, while regulations from European Commission and Chinese Ministry of Ecology and Environment influence producer responsibility. Safety incidents investigated by National Transportation Safety Board and standards from International Civil Aviation Organization inform packaging and transport rules enforced by IATA, and research at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory and Sandia National Laboratories focuses on mitigating thermal runaway and improving cell chemistry resilience.

Category:Electrochemistry