Artemis Accords

Artemis Accords
Yacine Boussoufa · CC BY-SA 4.0 · source
Name	Artemis Accords
Type	Multilateral bilateral framework
Location signed	Kennedy Space Center
Date signed	2020
Parties	Multiple nations
Language	English

Artemis Accords The Artemis Accords are a set of bilateral arrangements announced in 2020 to establish principles for cooperative civil exploration and use of the Moon, Mars and cislunar space. Initiated by National Aeronautics and Space Administration leadership during the Trump administration, the Accords propose operational norms intended to align activities by spacefaring states and non-state actors with existing instruments such as the Outer Space Treaty and the Moon Agreement. The Accords have been invoked in diplomatic exchanges involving agencies, legislatures, and multinational organizations.

Background and Development

Development of the Accords grew from initiatives by NASA officials, drawing on precedents from instruments like the Outer Space Treaty (1967), the Moon Agreement (1979), and norms discussed at United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs sessions. Influences included earlier efforts such as the International Space Station partnership agreements between United States partners including Roscosmos, European Space Agency, Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency, and Canadian Space Agency. Policy drivers included programs like Artemis program, commercial frameworks involving companies such as SpaceX, Blue Origin, Lockheed Martin, and regulatory measures from entities like the Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation. Legal counsel from institutions including Harvard University, Stanford University, and Georgetown University contributed analyses cited in interagency briefings to White House staff and congressional committees including United States Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation.

Principles and Provisions

The Accords articulate principles referencing transparency, interoperability, emergency assistance, registration of space objects, safe deconfliction, and extraction of resources. Provisions reflect concepts appearing in treaties such as the Outer Space Treaty and operational guidelines used aboard the International Space Station. Specific elements include mechanisms for notifying planned activities to reduce risks with actors such as Indian Space Research Organisation, China National Space Administration, Roscosmos, and private operators including Sierra Nevada Corporation. Technical standards align with bodies like the International Organization for Standardization and discussions at the International Telecommunication Union and Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space.

Signatory Nations and Adoption

Signatories include a mix of established and emerging space actors: Australia, United Kingdom, United Arab Emirates, Japan, Canada, Italy, Luxembourg, South Korea, Ukraine, New Zealand, Brazil, Poland, Norway, Sweden, Israel, Mexico, Singapore, France, Romania, Czech Republic, Spain and others that executed bilateral instruments with United States. Some space powers such as China and Russia did not endorse the Accords and instead advanced parallel proposals at venues including BRICS meetings and Shanghai Cooperation Organisation consultations. Signatory processes involved foreign ministries, space agencies like Australian Space Agency and parliaments such as the United States Congress and House Committee on Science, Space, and Technology.

Implementation and Activities

Implementation has involved coordination through partner agencies and companies for lunar missions, surface operations, and data sharing. Examples include joint discussions about lunar lander compatibility with Lunar Gateway, mission planning for robotic logistics compatible with standards used by European Space Agency and JAXA, and commercial procurement influenced by contractors such as Northrop Grumman and Axiom Space. Activities also touch on registration procedures under the Registration Convention and emergency response norms akin to those practiced aboard the International Space Station. Multinational exercises and workshops have occurred at venues including Kennedy Space Center, Vandenberg Space Force Base, Marshall Space Flight Center, and international fora like the Munich Security Conference and World Economic Forum.

Legal and Policy Implications

The Accords raise interaction issues with foundational instruments such as the Outer Space Treaty and the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea jurisprudence analogies, stimulating analysis at law schools including Columbia Law School and institutions like the Max Planck Institute for Comparative Public Law and International Law. Debates have considered whether the Accords constitute customary international law or non-binding political commitments, influencing legislative proposals in bodies such as the United States Congress and regulatory actions by the Federal Communications Commission and Federal Aviation Administration. Questions about resource extraction touch on national statutes like the U.S. Commercial Space Launch Competitiveness Act and policy frameworks in jurisdictions including Luxembourg and United Arab Emirates Space Agency.

Criticism and Controversies

Critics from actors including People's Republic of China, Russian Federation, academics at Beijing University and Moscow State University, and nongovernmental organizations such as International Institute for Strategic Studies and Friends of the Earth have argued the Accords may privilege certain states and commercial entities. Concerns focus on perceived incompatibilities with the Moon Agreement, equitable access raised by representatives of developing states at the United Nations General Assembly, and strategic implications cited by analysts at Chatham House and Center for Strategic and International Studies. Debates also involve technology companies including SpaceX and Blue Origin over property rights, environmental stewardship discussions with institutions like United Nations Environment Programme, and export control tensions involving Bureau of Industry and Security actions and Wassenaar Arrangement considerations.

Category:Space treaties