Army of the Three Guarantees

Army of the Three Guarantees was a coalition force formed in 1821 during the terminal phase of the Mexican War of Independence. It united former royalist officers and insurgent leaders under a shared political program, culminating in the entrance into Mexico City and the consummation of independence from Spanish Empire. The force implemented the Plan of Iguala, negotiated with figures from the Viceregal administration, insurgent networks, and regional caudillos, reshaping the trajectory of New Spain into the nascent First Mexican Empire.

Background and Formation

The emergence of the Army of the Three Guarantees occurred against the backdrop of renewed insurgency led by figures such as Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, José María Morelos y Pavón, and Vicente Guerrero, concurrent with royalist commanders like Agustín de Iturbide and Félix María Calleja. European events including the Peninsular War, the restoration of Ferdinand VII of Spain, and the influence of the Spanish Constitution of 1812 affected loyalties among colonials and peninsulares. Local institutions such as the Audiencia of Mexico, Ayuntamiento of Mexico City, and provincial intendancies negotiated power with insurgent juntas, clerical authorities linked to the Catholic Church, and criollo elites concerned about the security of privileges guaranteed by the Plan of Iguala. The pact that created the force reconciled principles of religion, independence, and unity, attracting support from provincial elites in regions like Vera Cruz, Puebla, Guerrero, Oaxaca, and Puebla de Zaragoza.

Leadership and Organization

Command fell to former royalist general Agustín de Iturbide with insurgent co-leaders including Vicente Guerrero and prominent officers from the royalist hierarchy such as Juan O’Donojú in later negotiations. The chain of command incorporated veterans of campaigns against insurgents who had served under commanders like Félix María Calleja and Brigadier General Manuel de la Concha, alongside guerrilla leaders trained in the tactics of José María Morelos y Pavón and Ignacio López Rayón. The Army’s structure combined cavalry contingents raised in Celaya and San Luis Potosí, infantry units mustered in coastal provinces like Veracruz, and artillery detachments experienced from sieges like Siege of Puebla (1813–1814). Political commissars drawn from criollo families and clergy allied to influential prelates such as Fray Servando Teresa de Mier and secular notables from Guadalajara supervised loyalty to the Plan of Iguala. Logistics relied on supply nodes in Acapulco, Matamoros, and Tampico and on urban garrisons stationed in strategic plazas including Querétaro and Toluca.

Military Campaigns and Actions

Operational activity included a campaign of marches, garrison consolidations, and negotiated surrenders rather than prolonged pitched battles. The force advanced through provinces that had seen earlier confrontations at locations like Altamira, Aguascalientes, and Zacatecas, persuading royalist garrisons commanded by officers loyal to Brigadier Pablo Morillo and local intendants to defect or capitulate. Key actions involved securing the port of Veracruz and lines of communication toward Mexico City, negotiating access with municipal councils such as the Ayuntamiento of Veracruz and provincial militias influenced by figures like Guadalupe Victoria and Nicolás Bravo. The Army’s entry into Mexico City was the culmination of a series of military-political maneuvers, reinforced by proclamations from royal envoys including Juan O’Donojú and formal ratification by parish-level authorities and civic militias in capital wards such as La Merced and San Ángel.

Political Impact and the Plan of Iguala

The Plan of Iguala articulated three guarantees—religion, independence, and unity—that underpinned the Army’s legitimacy. It sought to preserve the authority of the Catholic Church while severing ties to the Spanish Crown and proposing a constitutional monarchy influenced by models like the restored Bourbon regimes and contemporary constitutional arrangements such as the Portuguese Constitution (1822). Politically, the Army’s success marginalized radical republican factions exemplified by followers of Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla and José María Morelos y Pavón, while empowering conservative elites including members of the Audiencia and landowning families in Puebla and Zacatecas. Negotiations with representatives of Royal Spain like Juan O’Donojú and with foreign governments including emissaries linked to the United Kingdom and the Holy See shaped recognition and dynastic options culminating in the proclamation of Agustín I of Mexico. The settlement influenced subsequent treaties and diplomatic exchanges with states such as the United States and the Spanish-American republics.

Dissolution and Legacy

After entering Mexico City, the Army dissolved into political institutions that established the First Mexican Empire and military corps integrated into nascent national forces under commanders like Guadalupe Victoria and Nicolás Bravo. The short imperial tenure of Agustín I of Mexico and later republican restorations transformed veterans of the Army into participants in events such as the Plan of Casa Mata and the later conflicts with figures like Antonio López de Santa Anna. The legacy of the Army informed constitutional debates in successive congresses, influenced territorial disputes involving provinces like Texas and Alta California, and left imprints on historiography by historians such as Lucas Alamán and Vicente Riva Palacio. Commemorations, civic rituals, and contested monuments in plazas like Zócalo, Mexico City and institutions such as the National Museum of History (Mexico) reflect ongoing debates about monarchy, republicanism, clerical power, and regional caudillismo in nineteenth-century Mexico.

Category:Mexican War of Independence Category:History of Mexico 1808–1821