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| Antipope John XXIII | |
|---|---|
| Name | John XXIII (Antipope) |
| Birth name | Baldassarre Cossa |
| Birth date | c. 1370 |
| Birth place | Profluo, Kingdom of Naples |
| Death date | 22 December 1419 |
| Death place | Florence |
| Occupation | Cardinal, Antipope |
| Known for | Claimant to the papacy during the Western Schism |
Antipope John XXIII
Baldassarre Cossa, known historically as the claimant called John XXIII, was an Italian cardinal and papal claimant during the later phase of the Western Schism. He rose through the curial ranks in the service of Pope Boniface IX, Pope Innocent VII, and Pope Gregory XII, became a leading figure among the Roman obedience, and his contested election intensified the schism that engaged France, the Holy Roman Empire, the Kingdom of Aragon, and the Council of Constance.
Baldassarre Cossa was born c. 1370 in Profluo in the Kingdom of Naples under the reign of King Charles II of Naples's successors, and he belonged to a family connected to the Neapolitan nobility and military orders. He studied canon law and canonistic practice in centers such as Bologna and Naples and entered the service of Cardinal Pietro Tomacelli before aligning with the Roman curia during the pontificates of Pope Boniface IX, Pope Innocent VII, and Pope Gregory XII. Created a cardinal by Boniface, he held benefices in dioceses including Novara and Bologna, and he served as legate and papal chamberlain, forming alliances with figures like Pandolfo Malatesta, Niccolò III d'Este, and members of the Orsini family. His ecclesiastical career intersected with political actors such as King Ladislaus of Naples, the Colonna family, and the courts of Florence and Milan.
Following the resignation or deposition of competing claimants in the context of the Council of Pisa (1409) and the ongoing Western Schism, the cardinals convened at Florence and elsewhere to resolve the division among obediences. In this milieu, Cossa was elected by a group of cardinals as a successor to the Pisan papacy and assumed the name John XXIII, a title rejected by supporters of Pope Gregory XII and the Avignon Papacy. His elevation was backed by princes and prelates including Ladislaus of Naples, Louis II of Anjou sympathizers, and factions within the College of Cardinals. The contested claim provoked reaction from houses like the Medici and powers such as the Kingdom of France, the Crown of Aragon, and the Holy Roman Empire, each of which took positions that complicated recognition of the new claimant.
As claimant, John XXIII sought to consolidate authority through diplomatic outreach to England, Castile, Portugal, and the Papal States' local elites, while issuing bulls and appointments affecting dioceses such as Osimo and Ravenna. He relied on commanders and condottieri including Braccio da Montone and engaged with civic magistrates in Venice and Siena to secure revenues and military support. His court negotiated with envoys from Sigismund of Luxembourg, Charles VI of France, and emissaries from the Council of Pisa faction, and he attempted administrative reforms in the Roman Curia to strengthen papal finances and judicial processes affecting prebendaries and cathedral chapters. John XXIII's policies also addressed relations with religious orders like the Franciscans and Dominicans and intervened in contested episcopal elections in sees such as Bologna, Padua, and Milan.
The political momentum shifted when Sigismund of Luxembourg convened the Council of Constance (1414–1418) to end the schism. Delegates from England, Scotland, France, Castile, Aragon, Portugal, and the Holy Roman Empire pressed for conciliar resolution, and John XXIII's attempts to evade summons precipitated a military response by Frederick IV of Nuremberg and other imperial forces. Captured in 1415 after a retreat from Constance, he was imprisoned by Konrad von Horneck and tried by the council, where theologians and canonists from Paris University, Oxford University, and Padua examined charges including simony and schismatic conduct. The council declared his deposition on grounds articulated by jurists and canon lawyers, and he was confined under the authority of the council and Sigismund until a negotiated settlement was sought.
After his deposition, John XXIII negotiated submission and renounced his claim at Constance; he received penance and was eventually released from imprisonment through mediation by figures such as Cardinal Angelo Correr and envoys from Venice and Florence. He reconciled with the restored papal line headed by Pope Martin V, accepted a penitent condition, and resumed a subdued ecclesiastical role, holding limited offices and living under supervision in locations including Prato and Florence. During these years he interacted with humanist patrons like Coluccio Salutati and Poggio Bracciolini, and his retreat coincided with the consolidation of papal authority under Martin V and the diminishing of rival obediences such as the Pisan obedience and Avignon Papacy.
Historians assess John XXIII as a pivotal actor in the denouement of the Western Schism, whose ambition and political maneuvering hastened conciliar intervention by Sigismund and the Council of Constance. Chroniclers from Florence, Nuremberg, and Constance such as Flavio Biondo and later scholars in the Renaissance debated his character, noting episodes recorded by contemporaries like Aeneas Silvius Piccolomini and commentators at Paris University. Modern historians analyze his career in the context of late medieval papal politics involving the Colonna family, Orsini family, Kingdom of Naples, and the rise of conciliar theory that culminated in decrees impacting canon law and future ecumenical councils. His contested title and deposition informed debates about papal legitimacy, conciliarism, and the balance between secular rulers—such as Sigismund and Ladislaus of Naples—and ecclesiastical authorities, leaving a complex legacy within the history of the Catholic Church, Italy, and late medieval European diplomacy.
Category:Antipopes Category:14th-century births Category:1419 deaths