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| Anti-personnel mines | |
|---|---|
| Name | Anti-personnel mine |
| Type | Explosive device |
| Origin | Various |
| Service | Widely used |
| Wars | World War I, World War II, Korean War, Vietnam War, Soviet–Afghan War, Gulf War, Yugoslav Wars, Angolan Civil War, Cambodian Civil War |
| Designer | Various |
| Production date | 20th–21st century |
| Weight | Varies |
| Range | Contact or pressure-activated |
| Filling | High explosive, fragmentation, incendiary |
Anti-personnel mines are explosive devices designed to injure, maim, or kill individuals rather than destroy vehicles. Developed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, they became widespread during major 20th-century conflicts and remain a persistent legacy in many regions. Debates over their military utility, humanitarian cost, and legality have produced international treaties, clearance efforts, and victim assistance programs.
Early concepts for area denial and defensive fortification appeared during the Crimean War and in colonial conflicts involving the Boer Wars and Second Anglo-Afghan War. Systematic manufacture and deployment expanded during World War I as trench warfare drove demand for static defenses around the Western Front and Gallipoli campaign. Between wars, innovations from firms in Germany, United Kingdom, and United States influenced designs used in World War II, notably in the North African campaign, Battle of Britain, and the Pacific War. During the Cold War, production by the Soviet Union, United States, China, and Warsaw Pact members increased use in proxy wars such as the Vietnam War and the Soviet–Afghan War. Post-Cold War conflicts in the Balkans, Angola, and Cambodia left extensive contamination that spurred global advocacy by organizations like the International Committee of the Red Cross, Mines Advisory Group, and Human Rights Watch.
Designs vary from simple blast mines using a pressure fuze to bounding fragmentation devices. Common categories include blast fragmentation types like the PMN mine, directional devices inspired by the M18 Claymore used in Vietnam War operations, and scatterable mines deployable from aircraft or artillery as seen in the Iran–Iraq War. Materials range from metal-cased designs detectable by a United States Department of Defense-standard detector to plastic-cased minimum-metal mines produced by manufacturers in China and North Korea, complicating clearance efforts noted by the United Nations Mine Action Service. Some mines incorporate anti-handling or booby-trap features similar to devices catalogued in manuals from the Soviet Army and British Army.
Armies have used mines for perimeter defense around bases such as those in Kuwait during the Gulf War, for canalizing enemy movement as seen in the Korean War, and for area denial in insurgencies like the Second Congo War. Irregular forces in conflicts including the Liberian Civil War and Sri Lankan Civil War have employed mines and improvised explosive devices influenced by designs circulating from suppliers in Pakistan, Iran, and former Yugoslavia. State use has prompted military analysis from institutions such as the NATO Allied Command and doctrine revisions at the United States Army Training and Doctrine Command.
Anti-personnel mines produce long-term civilian harm documented in post-conflict settings like Cambodia, Afghanistan, and Mozambique. Casualty datasets compiled by agencies including the Landmine Monitor project and reports to the United Nations Security Council show that civilians—children, farmers, and returnees—constitute a majority of victims in many contexts. The economic effects on agriculture and infrastructure rebuilding are reported by development actors such as the World Bank, United Nations Development Programme, and regional bodies like the African Union and Association of Southeast Asian Nations. High-profile advocacy by survivors and public figures associated with the Nobel Peace Prize laureates has amplified calls for bans and assistance.
Clearance employs mechanical, manual, and canine methods. Demining organizations such as the Halo Trust, MAG, and national militaries use metal detectors, prodding techniques codified in standards from the Geneva International Centre for Humanitarian Demining, and explosive ordnance disposal units modeled on procedures from the United States Army Explosive Ordnance Disposal community. Mine detection research involves institutions like Imperial College London, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne exploring ground-penetrating radar, biosensors using rats trained by APOPO, and remote sensing supported by agencies such as the European Space Agency. Clearance programs coordinate with UN peacekeeping missions and local authorities to prioritize high-risk areas.
The landmark international agreement is the Ottawa Treaty (Mine Ban Treaty) negotiated with contributions from NGOs, states, and the United Nations; it prohibits use, stockpiling, production, and transfer for most States Parties. Notable non-signatories include United States, Russia, China, and India, which influence ongoing diplomatic debates inside forums such as the United Nations General Assembly and the Conference on Disarmament. Complementary instruments include Protocol II of the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons and implementation efforts by the International Court of Justice and humanitarian law experts from institutions like Harvard Law School and Geneva Academy.
Prevention strategies combine export controls, stockpile destruction programs administered by agencies such as the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe and the European Union, and education campaigns by UNICEF and Save the Children. Victim assistance integrates prosthetics and physiotherapy delivered by providers like the International Committee of the Red Cross and national health services in Vietnam, Angola, and Cambodia, with social reintegration projects supported by the World Health Organization and disability rights groups such as Handicap International. Rehabilitation includes vocational training through partnerships with vocational institutes and employment programs endorsed by the International Labour Organization.
Category:Land mines Category:Explosive weapons