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| Andean culture | |
|---|---|
| Name | Andean culture |
| Region | Andes |
| Countries | Peru; Bolivia; Ecuador; Colombia; Chile; Argentina |
| Major centers | Cuzco; Lake Titicaca; Quito; Lima; Bogotá; La Paz |
| Languages | Quechua; Aymara; Spanish; Kichwa; Mapudungun |
| Religions | Andean traditional beliefs; Roman Catholicism; Evangelicalism |
Andean culture Andean culture comprises the diverse traditions, practices, and institutions of indigenous and mestizo peoples of the Andes, centered on highland zones from Colombia to Argentina. It is characterized by distinctive adaptations to montane environments, long histories of empires and colonial encounters, and resilient continuity expressed in languages, rituals, textile arts, and agricultural systems. Scholars study Andean culture through archaeology, ethnohistory, linguistics, and anthropology with particular focus on sites, states, and movements that shaped the region.
The Andes mountain range traverses the territories of Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia, Chile, and Argentina, producing ecological zones such as the Altiplano (Andes), puna, yunga, and selva that shaped settlement patterns in places like Cuzco, Lake Titicaca, Quito, and Lima. Highland microclimates and vertical archipelagos informed the development of terracing systems at sites associated with Moche, Nazca, Wari, Tiwanaku, and Inca Empire infrastructural projects, while river valleys such as the Mantaro River and Santiago River (Chile) facilitated trade connecting to coastal polities like Chimú and inland polities like Chachapoya. Glacial retreat on peaks such as Huascarán and Sajama affects water supplies for communities near Arequipa and Potosí, intersecting with mining histories tied to locations like the Cerro Rico de Potosí and colonial centers like Lima and La Paz.
Preceramic and formative periods in sites such as Caral-Supe and Kotosh preceded the rise of regional states including Chavín de Huántar, Moche (culture), and Nazca (culture), leading to state-level societies like Wari (Huari) and Tiwanaku (Tiahuanaco) that restructured Andean political economies. The expansion of the Inca Empire from Cuzco integrated road systems like the Qhapaq Ñan and administrative centers such as Ollantaytambo and Machu Picchu, later encountering the Spanish conquistadors under Francisco Pizarro and colonial institutions centered in Seville, Cusco Cathedral, and viceroyalties like the Viceroyalty of Peru. Independence movements led by figures such as Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín reshaped republics including Peru and Bolivia, while 20th-century processes involving leaders like Víctor Raúl Haya de la Torre and events such as the Bolivian National Revolution influenced indigenous mobilization exemplified by organizations like the Federación Nacional de Campesinos and movements led by activists like Túpac Katari (symbolic), with contemporary politics engaging parties such as MAS-IPSP and presidents like Evo Morales.
Major linguistic families include Quechua and Aymara, with regional varieties such as Peruvian Quechua and Ecuadorian Kichwa alongside colonial languages like Spanish and contact languages including Jívaroan languages among Amazonian groups. Ethnic identities encompass peoples such as the Quechua people, Aymara people, Kichwa people, Chachapoya, Moche people, Mapuche, and Afro-Andean communities in regions near Esmeraldas Province and Chocó Department, represented in civic organizations such as indigenous federations and cultural institutions including the Museo Larco and university centers like the National University of San Marcos.
Household units and kinship systems in highland communities often revolve around ayni and communal labor patterns similar to practices recorded in colonial documents held at archives like the Archivo General de Indias and town records in Cusco Cathedral. Rural ayllus and cabildos organized land use around communal terraces; urban neighborhoods in cities such as Lima and Quito feature markets like Surquillo Market and festivals tied to patron saints at churches like San Francisco Church, Quito and Cathedral of Cusco. Everyday material life includes foods such as potato cultivars documented from sites like Chavín de Huántar and livestock like llama and alpaca that underpin social roles visible in colonial censuses and contemporary ethnographies by scholars at institutions like the Instituto Nacional de Cultura (Peru).
Religious worlds blend Andean cosmologies with Catholicism introduced by orders such as the Franciscans and Jesuits, producing syncretic observances that occur at shrines like Pachamama (concept) altars and pilgrimage sites like El Señor de los Milagros and Sacsayhuamán. Ritual specialists, including traditional healers and yatiris, perform ceremonies for solstices at sites oriented to celestial phenomena used by astronomers in precolonial centers like Chankillo, with calendrical feasts recorded in colonial chronicles authored by writers such as Bacón and Felipe Guamán Poma de Ayala. Festivals such as Inti Raymi and Holy Week processions in Ayacucho demonstrate ritual continuity and adaptation mediated by municipal governments and cultural ministries.
Textile production from preceramic loom traditions through Inca imperial workshops produced emblematic textiles in collections held at institutions like the British Museum, Museo Nacional de Antropología (Mexico), and Museo de la Nación (Peru), with motifs paralleling ceramics from Nazca and metalwork from Moche tombs displayed in the Larco Museum. Artistic expressions include retablos and painting traditions influenced by schools such as the Cusco School and modern artists like Oswaldo Guayasamín and Fernando de Szyszlo. Material culture also encompasses quipu knotted recording devices studied in archives like the Archivo General de la Nación (Peru) and lithic industries from sites investigated by archaeologists affiliated with universities such as the Pontifical Catholic University of Peru.
Andean economies historically relied on vertical complementarity across ecological tiers exemplified by terracing at Moray (archaeological site) and irrigation canals in valleys like the Chancay River Basin, while pastoralism centered on camelids such as Llama and Alpaca supported fiber economies sold at markets including Pisac Market. Long-distance exchange networks linked coca cultivation in lowland zones like Chapare to highland processing centers and to colonial silver extraction at sites such as Potosí (city), which integrated with global trade routes via Atlantic ports like Seville and Pacific ports like Callao. Contemporary economic actors include cooperatives, mining companies operating near Yanacocha and Conga (project), and peasant unions engaging with policy arenas in capitals like La Paz and Lima.
Contemporary cultural politics feature revitalization movements promoting Quechua language education in ministries of education, bilingual programs at universities such as Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, and legal recognition initiatives influenced by conventions like those advocated by the United Nations and organizations such as CIPCA (Centro de Investigación y Promoción del Campesinado). Issues include indigenous rights struggles in contexts like road protests near Bagua (conflict) and resource disputes involving projects at TIPNIS and mining protests at Espinar, leading to policy debates in legislatures and mobilizations by organizations such as CONAIE and CSUTCB. Cultural heritage management engages museums, UNESCO inscriptions for sites like Machu Picchu and Qhapaq Ñan, and grassroots projects documenting oral traditions collected by NGOs and archives including the Archivo Regional de Puno.