American Indians and Alaska Natives

American Indians and Alaska Natives
Group	American Indians and Alaska Natives
Population	9.7 million (self-identified, 2020 census)
Regions	United States, Alaska, Oklahoma, Southwest, Plains, Pacific Northwest
Religions	Indigenous religions, Christianity, Native American Church, Sun Dance, Potlatch
Languages	Numerous Indigenous languages, English

Contents

American Indians and Alaska Natives American Indians and Alaska Natives comprise diverse Indigenous peoples with ancestral ties to the pre-Columbian Americas, including groups such as the Navajo Nation, Cherokee Nation, Sioux, Iñupiat, Aleut, and Haida. Their histories intersect with events and entities like Columbian exchange, Lewis and Clark Expedition, Trail of Tears, Indian Removal Act, and the expansion of the United States. Contemporary communities engage with institutions such as the Bureau of Indian Affairs, Indian Health Service, National Congress of American Indians, and tribal courts to navigate sovereignty, rights, and cultural persistence.

History

Indigenous presence predates European contact and is documented through archaeological sites like Mesa Verde, Chaco Canyon, Cahokia Mounds, and migrations evidenced by theories involving the Bering Land Bridge and coastal routes tied to the Pacific Coast Route. Post-contact history includes interactions and conflicts such as the Pequot War, King Philip's War, Sand Creek Massacre, Wounded Knee Massacre (1890), and legal milestones including the Indian Appropriations Act, Dawes Act, and the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924. Movements for rights and recognition invoked entities like the American Indian Movement, the Occupation of Alcatraz (1969–1971), and litigation culminating in cases like Worcester v. Georgia and United States v. Kagama.

Population patterns reflect concentrations in areas such as the Navajo Nation spanning Arizona, New Mexico, and Utah, the Cherokee Nation in Oklahoma, and Alaska Native regions including the North Slope Borough and Yukon–Koyukuk Census Area. Urban migration created communities in cities like Los Angeles, New York City, Phoenix, Anchorage, and Tulsa. Census data and scholarship from institutions including the U.S. Census Bureau, National Congress of American Indians, and Bureau of Indian Affairs document trends in self-identification, mixed ancestry, and reservation versus non-reservation residency.

Tribal nations exercise forms of self-government through constitutions and tribal codes, engaging with federal entities such as the Bureau of Indian Affairs and judicial forums like the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit. Treaties with the United States—including the Treaty of Fort Laramie (1851), Treaty of Greenville, and Treaty of Canandaigua—established reservations and rights that remain central to sovereignty disputes adjudicated in cases such as McGirt v. Oklahoma and Oliphant v. Suquamish Indian Tribe. Intertribal organizations like the National Congress of American Indians and regional compacts, and enterprises such as tribal casinos regulated under the Indian Gaming Regulatory Act, shape governance and economic development.

Cultural traditions encompass ceremonies like the Sun Dance, Potlatch, powwows, and practices of artists and leaders including Ruth Anna Buffalo-style figures, storytellers, and artisans who draw on cultures such as the Anishinaabe, Hopi, Tlingit, Pueblo, Crow, and Comanche. Language families represented include Algonquian languages, Siouan languages, Athabaskan languages, Uto-Aztecan languages, and Eskimo–Aleut languages, with revitalization efforts linked to programs at institutions such as Haskell Indian Nations University, Institute of American Indian Arts, and language projects collaborating with Smithsonian Institution archives. Literary and artistic contributions involve figures and works like N. Scott Momaday, Leslie Marmon Silko, Louise Erdrich, Joy Harjo, and the Boarding schools era’s contested legacies.

Health disparities involve outcomes tracked by the Indian Health Service, studies by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and initiatives linked to the Affordable Care Act provisions for tribal health, with challenges including chronic diseases, mental health, and access in rural areas such as Navajo Nation and Alaska Native villages. Educational efforts engage institutions like Bureau of Indian Education, tribal colleges such as Sinte Gleska University and Diné College, and scholarship programs from the National Indian Education Association. Socioeconomic indicators reference labor markets influenced by gaming enterprises, natural resource development on lands subject to Exxon Valdez oil spill-era protections and revenue sharing, and federal programs administered through entities like the Administration for Native Americans.

Federal Indian law comprises statutes, treaties, and court decisions, including precedents set by Worcester v. Georgia, Talton v. Mayes, Santa Clara Pueblo v. Martinez, and recent rulings like McGirt v. Oklahoma. Key statutes include the Indian Reorganization Act, Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act, Indian Child Welfare Act, and Indian Gaming Regulatory Act, while agencies such as the Bureau of Indian Affairs and Indian Health Service implement policy. Land status is shaped by allotment under the Dawes Act, restoration acts like the Indian Reorganization Act (1934), and recognition processes managed by the Bureau of Indian Affairs federal acknowledgement regulations.

Contemporary activism includes movements and events like the Occupy Alcatraz, the American Indian Movement, protests against pipeline projects such as Dakota Access Pipeline at Standing Rock Indian Reservation, and campaigns for repatriation under the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act. Cultural resurgence and political representation feature leaders and elected officials from tribes including the Navajo Nation, Cherokee Nation, Lakota advocates, and lawmakers engaged with the Department of the Interior and congressional delegations. Ongoing debates address land rights, environmental protection exemplified by actions toward Bears Ears National Monument, implementation of Indian Child Welfare Act, and tribal participation in federal policymaking through organizations like the National Congress of American Indians and regional tribal councils.