Airstrikes during the Syrian Civil War
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| Airstrikes during the Syrian Civil War | |
|---|---|
| Name | Air operations in the Syrian conflict |
| Partof | Syrian civil war |
| Date | 2011–present |
| Place | Syria, Idlib, Aleppo, Raqqa, Deir ez-Zor, Homs, Daraa, Latakia |
| Status | Ongoing |
Airstrikes during the Syrian Civil War Air-delivered strikes have been a central feature of the Syrian civil war since 2012, involving state and foreign aviation, unmanned systems, and cruise missiles. Operations have targeted opposition forces, ISIL, HTS, and infrastructure while producing sustained humanitarian crises in urban areas such as Aleppo, Homs, and Ghouta.
Background and context
The onset of the Syrian civil war followed the Syrian uprising and the collapse of initial political reforms under Bashar al-Assad. Early aerial operations by the Syrian Arab Air Force escalated as the conflict internationalized with interventions by the Russia, United States, Iran, Turkey, Israel, and the United Kingdom. The entry of Russian intervention in 2015, deployment of Russian Aerospace Forces, and the US-led Operation Inherent Resolve coalition reshaped air campaign dynamics against actors such as ISIL, Jabhat al-Nusra, and various Free Syrian Army factions.
Belligerents and airstrike capabilities
State and non-state actors fielded varied aviation assets. The Syrian Arab Air Force employed Soviet-era jets like the Su-22 and MiG-23 and munitions including unguided bombs and barrel bombs. Russian Aerospace Forces deployed Su-24, Su-34, Su-35, and cruise missiles launched from Kalibr-equipped platforms. The United States Air Force and United States Navy employed MQ-9 Reaper UAVs, F-15E, F/A-18, and Tomahawk strikes in counter-ISIL operations. Turkish Air Force conducted strikes against YPG and ISIL positions; Israeli Air Force targeted sites linked to IRGC and Hezbollah. Non-state groups used improvised drones and anti-aircraft systems supplied by patrons like Quds Force proxies.
Major campaigns and notable operations
Russian intervention in September 2015 marked a turning point with concentrated air campaigns in Aleppo, the Eastern Ghouta offensive, and the Idlib campaign. Coalition airstrikes under Operation Inherent Resolve focused on Raqqa and the campaigns against ISIL affiliates. Notable incidents include the 2016 Aleppo bombings, the 2013 Ghouta attack aftermath that influenced strikes and policy, the 2018 Douma episode prompting Western strikes, and repeated strikes near Al-Tanf. Cross-border operations by Israeli Air Force targeted alleged Hezbollah and IRGC logistics in Latakia and Hama. Turkish campaigns such as Operation Euphrates Shield and Operation Olive Branch combined air and ground assets against ISIL and YPG.
Civilian impact and humanitarian concerns
Air campaigns produced extensive civilian casualties, urban destruction, and mass displacement, notably in Aleppo, Homs, Ghouta, Idlib, and Rukban. Humanitarian agencies like OCHA, ICRC, MSF, and Human Rights Watch documented attacks on hospitals and White Helmets rescue teams. Strikes on markets, schools, and hospitals provoked international outcry and mass refugee flows toward Turkey, Lebanon, and Jordan. Siege warfare in places such as Eastern Ghouta and Madaya combined aerial bombardment with deprivation tactics, leading to negotiated evacuations coordinated by United Nations envoys and mediation by Russia and Turkey.
Legal issues and investigations
Legal scrutiny addressed possible violations of international humanitarian law by actors including the Syrian Arab Republic, Russian Federation, and Turkey. Investigations by the UNHRC Commission of Inquiry on Syria, the IIIM, and NGOs such as Amnesty International examined war crimes allegations, targeting of protected objects, and indiscriminate use of force. Debates over proportionality, distinction, and the lawfulness of cross-border strikes involved instruments like the Geneva Conventions and UN Security Council resolutions, complicated by vetoes from permanent members such as Russia and China.
Military tactics, weapons, and targeting methods
Tactics evolved from conventional bombing to combined arms integration, close air support, precision strike, and stand-off missile use. Actors used guided munitions like Paveway II laser-guided bombs, JDAM-converted bombs, and anti-radiation missiles against air defenses. Cruise missiles including Kalibr and Tomahawk provided long-range strike options. Unmanned aerial vehicles such as the MQ-9 Reaper, Bayraktar TB2, and improvised loitering munitions conducted reconnaissance and precision attacks. Air-defense engagements involved systems like S-400, S-300, and legacy Soviet SAM batteries; electronic warfare and targeting data from Syrian Arab Army ground units, IRGC advisors, and Russian spotters increased strike effectiveness. Targeting controversies included reliance on human intelligence from local proxies, signals intelligence, and geolocation techniques that sometimes produced misidentification and civilian harm.