ARPES

ARPES
Name	Angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy
Acronym	ARPES
Field	Condensed matter physics
Invented	1960s–1970s
Notable users	Claus F. Klingshirn, David E. Eastman, John C. Hemminger, James W. Allen, Zhi-Xun Shen, Andrea Damascelli, Philip Hofmann, Folkert M. Peeters, Ali Yazdani, Mikhail I. Katsnelson, Eugene I. Rashba, B. Andrei Bernevig, Shoucheng Zhang, J. Michael Hotchkiss, Nicola Marzari, Giovanni Vignale, Anthony J. Leggett, N. David Mermin, Walter Kohn, John Bardeen, Leo Esaki, Herbert Kroemer, Tsung-Dao Lee, Chen-Ning Yang, Pierre-Gilles de Gennes, Luigi Galvani, James C. Phillips, Eliot F. Sachs, Gianfranco Pacchioni, Giorgio Margaritondo, C. J. Powell, D. R. Lide, Eberhard Umbach, Philipp Hofmann, Johannes B. Oostens, Alexei A. Abrikosov, Lev Landau, Solomon P. Novikov, Michael R. Norman, J. C. Slater, Ernest O. Lawrence, Niels Bohr, Enrico Fermi, Paul Dirac, Walter Heitler, Felix Bloch, Max Born, John Pendry, Philip Phillips, Henry Ehrenreich, Masao Kono, Hiroshi Kontani, Giancarlo Panaccione, Federico Boschini, Kasper S. Thygesen, Noriaki Ikeda, Hideo Hosono, Alexei Kitaev, Andrei D. Zaikin, Stephen D. Kevan, Gerald D. Mahan, Duncan Haldane, F. Duncan M. Haldane, Robert B. Laughlin, Horst E. C. Meessen, Boris I. Shklovskii, Leonid I. Glazman

ARPES is a spectroscopic technique that measures the energy and momentum of electrons photoemitted from crystalline solids to reveal electronic band structures and quasiparticle dynamics. Developed progressively through work at institutions such as Bell Labs, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, and Max Planck Institute for Solid State Research, it has become central to studies of superconductivity, topological phases, and correlated electron systems.

Introduction

ARPES directly probes occupied electronic states by combining photoelectric excitation with momentum resolution, enabling mapping of dispersion relations in materials like graphene, cuprate superconductors, iron pnictides, topological insulators, and transition metal dichalcogenides. Influential laboratories at Stanford University, University of California, Berkeley, Princeton University, Swiss Light Source, and Diamond Light Source advanced capabilities through synchrotron and laser sources. Key figures include experimentalists from University of Cambridge, MIT, University of Tokyo, and Paul Scherrer Institute.

Principles and technique

The technique relies on conservation laws derived from quantum mechanics as formulated by Paul Dirac and Enrico Fermi, applying energy and in-plane momentum conservation at sample-vacuum interfaces characterized in models by Felix Bloch and Lev Landau. Photoemission intensity follows matrix elements described in treatments by Gerald D. Mahan and John Bardeen, while many-body effects invoke frameworks developed by Lev Landau, Philip W. Anderson, J. Michael Ziman, and David Pines. Spectral function analysis often references theories from Gianfranco Resta and Giovanni Vignale and computational inputs from Nicola Marzari and Kasper S. Thygesen.

Experimental setup and instrumentation

Typical setups use photon sources from synchrotrons at facilities like European Synchrotron Radiation Facility and Advanced Light Source, or ultrafast lasers developed in groups at Stanford Linear Accelerator Center and Fritz Haber Institute. Hemispherical analyzers and time-of-flight detectors trace back to designs influenced by John Pendry and laboratories at Argonne National Laboratory. Ultra-high vacuum chambers employ technology from Hitachi, Oxford Instruments, and SPECS, with cryogenic manipulators and magnetic shields used in experiments at CERN-affiliated groups and National Institute of Standards and Technology. Surface preparation methods include sputter-anneal cycles and molecular beam epitaxy practiced at IBM Research, Bell Labs, and Max Planck Society facilities.

Data analysis and interpretation

Data reduction converts raw intensity maps into energy distribution curves and momentum distribution curves using algorithms from groups at IBM Research and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Extracting self-energy and renormalization employs Kramers–Kronig relations explored by Rudolf Kronig and H. A. Kramers and many-body calculations by Anderson, Miguel A. Cazalilla, and Alexei A. Abrikosov. Comparison with band structure calculations uses density functional theory codes developed by Walter Kohn, John P. Perdew, Luigi Colombo, and implementations like those from Quantum ESPRESSO and VASP teams at University of Vienna and SISSA.

Applications and materials studied

ARPES has elucidated the d-wave gap in YBa2Cu3O7 and Bi2Sr2CaCu2O8, Fermi surface reconstructions in La2-xSrxCuO4, Dirac cones in Bi2Se3 and Sb2Te3, valley physics in MoS2 and WS2, and charge density waves in TaS2 and NbSe2. Studies of correlated oxides trace to SrTiO3, VO2, and LaAlO3/SrTiO3 interfaces investigated at University of Tokyo and University of Geneva. Investigations of emergent quasiparticles reference theorists at Princeton University, Harvard University, and Columbia University.

Limitations and challenges

Surface sensitivity exposes experiments to reconstruction and contamination issues documented by teams at Max Planck Institute for Chemical Physics of Solids and Paul Scherrer Institute. Matrix element effects complicate intensity interpretation as noted by groups at MIT and University of Oxford. Energy and momentum resolution trade-offs depend on source brilliance from facilities such as Diamond Light Source and SOLEIL. Time-resolved variants face space-charge effects first analyzed at Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory and FELIX Laboratory.

Variants and complementary methods

Variants include spin-resolved photoemission developed at University of Strathclyde and University of Twente, time-resolved ARPES pioneered at SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory and Max Planck Institute for the Structure and Dynamics of Matter, and nano-ARPES systems at Elettra Sincrotrone Trieste. Complementary probes include scanning tunneling microscopy at IBM Research Zurich, resonant inelastic X-ray scattering at European XFEL, optical spectroscopy groups at Columbia University, and quantum oscillation measurements from teams at Los Alamos National Laboratory.

Category:Spectroscopy