4G (telecommunication)

4G (telecommunication)
Name	4G
Developer	Various Ericsson, Nokia, Qualcomm, Huawei Technologies, Samsung Electronics
Introduced	2009
Predecessor	3G
Successor	5G

4G (telecommunication) 4G denotes the fourth generation of mobile telecommunications standards that succeeded 3G and preceded 5G NR. It unified packet-switched architectures developed by vendors such as Ericsson, Nokia, Huawei Technologies, Qualcomm, Samsung Electronics, and standards bodies including the 3GPP, ITU, IEEE, ETSI, and GSMA. Major commercial launches were announced by carriers like TeliaSonera, MetroPCS, SK Telecom, Deutsche Telekom, and AT&T, enabling services across regions including North America, Europe, Asia-Pacific, Africa, and Latin America.

History

Early research trajectories trace to laboratory programs at Bell Labs, NEC Corporation, Motorola, Nokia Siemens Networks, and university groups at University of California, Los Angeles, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, University of Oulu, and Tsinghua University. Formal definition efforts were concentrated at the International Telecommunication Union's ITU-R and the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), which published specifications culminating in the Long-Term Evolution (LTE) family. Pioneering commercial deployments occurred when TeliaSonera launched LTE in Stockholm and Oslo, followed by rollouts from Verizon Wireless, Sprint Corporation, Vodafone Group, and Nippon Telegraph and Telephone. Regulatory milestones involved spectrum decisions by authorities such as the Federal Communications Commission, Ofcom, Agence Nationale des Fréquences, and Australian Communications and Media Authority.

Standards and Technologies

Key standards include 3GPP releases that formalized Long-Term Evolution (LTE) and LTE-Advanced, with complementary work in the IEEE 802.16 family for WiMAX promoted by Intel Corporation and Alvarion. LTE used modulation schemes like Orthogonal frequency-division multiple access (OFDMA) and Single-carrier frequency-division multiple access (SC-FDMA) developed from research at Bell Labs and Nokia Research Center. Core network evolution adopted the Evolved Packet Core (EPC) architecture specified by 3GPP, integrating with legacy GSM/UMTS networks and interworking with IP Multimedia Subsystem (IMS) frameworks from ETSI and 3GPP. Advanced features standardized in LTE-Advanced included carrier aggregation, coordinated multipoint (CoMP), and higher-order MIMO schemes influenced by work at University of Southampton and ETH Zurich.

Network Architecture and Components

The 4G architecture separated access and core planes, using eNodeB base stations manufactured by Ericsson, Huawei Technologies, Nokia, and ZTE Corporation. The EPC comprised elements like the Mobility Management Entity (MME), Serving Gateway (S-GW), and Packet Data Network Gateway (P-GW), designed for IP-centric traffic and interconnection to networks operated by AT&T, Verizon Wireless, China Mobile, NTT Docomo, and Reliance Jio. Backhaul relied on Ethernet and optical transport supplied by Cisco Systems, Juniper Networks, and Alcatel-Lucent. Subscriber management integrated with systems from Amdocs and Hewlett-Packard Enterprise, while charging and policy control employed online charging systems endorsed by 3GPP.

Performance and Capabilities

4G offered theoretical peak downlink rates defined by 3GPP: LTE Category specifications and LTE-Advanced targets, achieving tens to hundreds of megabits per second under favorable conditions. Typical real-world throughput delivered by operators such as T-Mobile US and Orange S.A. ranged from several megabits to 100+ Mbps, depending on spectrum bandwidth, modulation (e.g., 64-QAM, 256-QAM), and MIMO order. Latency improvements supported emerging applications adopted by companies like YouTube, Netflix, Skype Technologies, and Riot Games while enabling mobile broadband, high-definition streaming, and real-time services used by Uber Technologies, Airbnb, and Spotify. Spectral efficiency gains were informed by academic work at Stanford University, Imperial College London, and KTH Royal Institute of Technology.

Deployment and Adoption

Major carriers that deployed 4G networks include Verizon Wireless, AT&T, T-Mobile US, Sprint Corporation, Vodafone Group, China Mobile, NTT Docomo, SK Telecom, and Telstra. Rollout strategies varied: dense urban coverage in metropolises such as New York City, London, Tokyo, Seoul, and Shanghai contrasted with rural initiatives in regions like Sub-Saharan Africa supported by vendors including Ericsson and Huawei Technologies. Mobile virtual network operators (MVNOs) such as Boost Mobile and Virgin Mobile leveraged wholesale access. Economic impacts were analyzed by institutions like the World Bank and OECD, and consumer adoption tracked by market research firms such as GSMA Intelligence and IDC.

Devices and Handsets

4G-capable devices were produced by manufacturers including Apple Inc., Samsung Electronics, LG Electronics, HTC Corporation, Sony Mobile, Huawei Technologies, Xiaomi, OnePlus, and Motorola Mobility. Early landmark models included the Samsung Galaxy S II, iPhone 5, and LTE-enabled variants of Nokia Lumia and BlackBerry devices. Chipsets from Qualcomm, MediaTek, Intel Corporation, and Broadcom integrated LTE modems supporting carrier aggregation and multiple bands. The device ecosystem fostered application platforms like Google Play, Apple App Store, and services from Facebook, Twitter, and Amazon.com.

Regulatory and Spectrum Issues

Spectrum allocation for 4G involved auctions and refarming policies conducted by agencies such as the Federal Communications Commission, Ofcom, ANFR, BNetzA, and Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications (Japan). Bands commonly used included 700 MHz, 800 MHz, 1800 MHz, 2600 MHz, and 3500 MHz, with coordination issues between incumbents like Broadcasting Corporation affiliates and public safety networks such as FirstNet. Net neutrality debates engaged stakeholders including Electronic Frontier Foundation, Public Knowledge, FCC Chairman, and multinational carriers. Interoperability testing was performed in labs run by 3GPP, GCF, and consortia including the Open Mobile Alliance.

Category:Telecommunications standards