2015 COP21

2015 COP21
Name	2015 COP21
Date	30 November – 12 December 2015
Location	Le Bourget, Paris, France
Convened by	United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
Participants	Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
Result	Adoption of the Paris Agreement

2015 COP21 was the twenty-first session of the Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change held at Le Bourget near Paris from 30 November to 12 December 2015, culminating in the adoption of the Paris Agreement with wide participation from states, subnational actors, and international organizations. The conference brought together heads of state such as Barack Obama, François Hollande, Xi Jinping, Angela Merkel, and Narendra Modi, alongside leaders of institutions like the United Nations, the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund, and the European Union, and non-state actors including Bill Gates and representatives from Greenpeace and World Wildlife Fund. The meeting followed a series of preparatory negotiations under the aegis of the Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action and the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice and built on prior agreements including the Kyoto Protocol, the Cancún Agreements, and the Doha Amendment.

Background

The conference was framed by scientific assessments from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change and political momentum after events like the 2014 United Nations Climate Summit and the 2012 United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development (Rio+20), with inputs from technical forums including the World Meteorological Organization and the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services. Hosts and co-sponsors such as the French Republic, represented by Laurent Fabius and Ségolène Royal, coordinated with negotiating blocs including the Least Developed Countries, the African Group (United Nations), the Alliance of Small Island States, the Like-Minded Developing Countries, and the European Union to reconcile positions shaped by prior frameworks like the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and the Kyoto Protocol mechanisms. High-profile pre-conference diplomacy involved bilateral meetings between United States and China officials culminating in the 2014 United States–China Joint Announcement on Climate Change and interactions with regional organizations such as the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, the G20, and the African Union.

Negotiations and Key Provisions

Negotiations were conducted under the Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform for Enhanced Action with facilitation by the French presidency and chairing by Laurent Fabius, supported by delegations from constituencies including the Umbrella Group and the Environmental Integrity Group. Core provisions debated included the long-term temperature goal, mitigation pathways, adaptation mechanisms, finance commitments, transparency frameworks, loss and damage, and compliance provisions, drawing on precedents set by the Cancún Agreements, the Bali Action Plan, and the Doha Amendment. Major negotiated text elements referenced a temperature goal "well below 2 °C" and pursuing efforts for "1.5 °C", a global stocktake process, and a transparency framework influenced by the Measurement, Reporting and Verification workstreams and discussions involving entities like the Green Climate Fund and the Global Environment Facility. Parties negotiated finance pathways involving commitments to mobilize US$100 billion per year by 2020, modalities for adaptation finance, and mechanisms for technology transfer under guidance from bodies including the United Nations Environment Programme and the Inter-American Development Bank.

Nationally Determined Contributions

The conference centered on the submission and aggregation of Nationally Determined Contributions by Parties, a mechanism designed to reflect nationally determined mitigation and adaptation ambitions drawing from examples like the Intended Nationally Determined Contributions process and precedent reporting to the UNFCCC Secretariat. Major contributors such as the United States, China, European Union, India, Brazil, South Africa, Japan, Russia, and Australia presented pledges that varied in scope, sectoral coverage, baseline years, and conditionality tied to finance and technology support from institutions like the World Bank and the International Renewable Energy Agency. The design of NDCs incorporated flexibility principles debated by negotiating groups including the Like-Minded Developing Countries and the Small Island Developing States, and anticipated future updates framed by the global stocktake mechanism and the transparency regime overseen by the Subsidiary Body for Implementation.

Outcomes and Adoption of the Paris Agreement

At the conclusion of sessions and high-level plenaries attended by leaders from France, the United States, China, India, Brazil, and South Africa, delegations agreed on the final text that constituted the Paris Agreement, adopted on 12 December 2015 under the authority of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change and opened for signature at the United Nations Headquarters in New York City. The adopted instrument established the temperature goal, the NDC framework, transparency and accountability provisions, the global stocktake, adaptation communications, a framework for finance including the US$100 billion target, and a mechanism for addressing loss and damage influenced by proposals from the Alliance of Small Island States and the Least Developed Countries. The formal adoption followed intense diplomacy, text iteration, and endorsement by negotiating blocs such as the European Union and the African Group (United Nations), with public advocacy from civil society organizations including 350.org and Sierra Club.

Implementation and Follow-up Mechanisms

Implementation architecture established by the agreement relied on a combination of nationally driven NDC updates, periodic global stocktakes, a transparency framework, and funding mechanisms including the Green Climate Fund and the Global Environment Facility, with technical support from entities like the United Nations Development Programme and the International Renewable Energy Agency. Follow-up involved ratification steps by Parties in domestic processes, accession procedures administered by the UNFCCC Secretariat, and coordination through international fora such as the G20 and the Conference of the Parties sessions, while market instruments and cooperative approaches drew on frameworks related to the Clean Development Mechanism and proposals for new mechanisms under Article 6 that engaged actors including the International Civil Aviation Organization and regional carbon markets in the European Union Emissions Trading System.

Criticism and Controversies

Critiques from commentators, NGOs, and some negotiating Parties focused on the voluntary nature of NDCs, perceived insufficiency of aggregate ambition to meet the 1.5 °C or 2 °C pathways described by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, the reliance on future finance commitments such as the US$100 billion pledge, and the treatment of loss and damage, with voices from the Alliance of Small Island States and the Least Developed Countries expressing concern. Observers from organizations including Greenpeace, Friends of the Earth International, and 350.org questioned market mechanisms and the role of offsets, while analysts at institutions such as the International Energy Agency and the World Resources Institute examined emissions trajectories, transparency challenges, and implementation gaps. Political controversies involved domestic ratification debates in countries like the United States and Australia, bilateral tensions over finance between major emitters including China and the United States, and legal analyses by scholars linked to institutions such as Harvard University and Columbia University.

Legacy and Impact on Global Climate Policy

The agreement has shaped subsequent climate diplomacy, influencing national policy agendas in countries such as the United Kingdom, Germany, China, India, and Canada and informing multilateral initiatives including the Talanoa Dialogue, subsequent Conference of the Parties sessions, and the Global Stocktake. It catalyzed investment shifts highlighted by actors like the World Bank, the International Finance Corporation, and private finance groups, accelerated deployment of technologies promoted by the International Renewable Energy Agency and the International Energy Agency, and framed litigation and governance debates in courts referenced by organizations such as ClientEarth and academic centers at Yale University and Oxford University. The agreement's emphasis on increasing ambition and periodic NDC revisions continues to influence international relations, trade policy discussions in the World Trade Organization, and philanthropy from entities including the Rockefeller Foundation and Bloomberg Philanthropies.

Category:United Nations climate change conferences