1939 invasion of Poland

1939 invasion of Poland
Ai6z83xl3g · CC BY-SA 3.0 · source
Conflict	1939 invasion of Poland
Partof	World War II
Date	1 September – 6 October 1939
Place	Poland
Result	Partition of Poland; Soviet–German occupation
Combatant1	Nazi Germany; Soviet Union (from 17 September) (indirect)
Combatant2	Second Polish Republic
Commander1	Adolf Hitler; Heinrich Himmler; Ferdinand Schörner; Gerd von Rundstedt; Walther von Brauchitsch; Georgi Zhukov (Soviet)
Commander2	Edward Rydz-Śmigły; Władysław Sikorski; Józef Beck; Franciszek Kleeberg; Władysław Anders
Strength1	Wehrmacht: armor and air forces; German Army; Luftwaffe
Strength2	Polish Army; Border Protection Corps

1939 invasion of Poland was the military campaign that began on 1 September 1939 with the attack by Nazi Germany and culminated in the division of Poland between Germany and the Soviet Union in early October 1939. The campaign marked the opening of World War II in Europe and featured combined operations by the Wehrmacht, Luftwaffe, and later the Red Army against the Second Polish Republic, leading to major battles, civilian suffering, and long-term geopolitical consequences.

Background and Causes

In the late 1930s diplomatic crises involving Adolf Hitler, Nazi Germany, and revisionist aims challenged the interwar order established by the Treaty of Versailles, the League of Nations, and the Locarno Treaties. German demands concerning the Free City of Danzig, the Polish Corridor, and minority rights intersected with Polish policy shaped by Józef Piłsudski’s legacy, the statesmanship of Józef Beck, and the strategic concerns of the Second Polish Republic. German foreign policy was influenced by documents and doctrines including Mein Kampf, Lebensraum, and the ambitions of the Nazi Party leadership around figures such as Heinrich Himmler and Hermann Göring. Diplomatic maneuvers involved the United Kingdom, led by Neville Chamberlain, the French Third Republic, led by figures like Édouard Daladier, and clandestine pacts such as the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. The Soviet Union under Joseph Stalin negotiated the secret protocols of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact with Vyacheslav Molotov and Joachim von Ribbentrop, which partitioned spheres of influence in Eastern Europe and directly affected Polish sovereignty.

Military Forces and Preparations

Polish preparations were organized under the Polish Army command with leaders including Edward Rydz-Śmigły, Władysław Sikorski, and corps commanders such as Franciszek Kleeberg and Władysław Anders. Poland fielded units from formations like the Border Protection Corps and mobilized cavalry brigades and limited mechanized forces. German preparations involved the Wehrmacht, Heer, Luftwaffe, and armored formations under commanders such as Walther von Brauchitsch, Gerd von Rundstedt, and panzer leaders like Heinz Guderian. The Germans developed doctrines exemplified at Blitzkrieg-style maneuvers, demonstrated by combined arms operations coordinated with air support from Hermann Göring’s Luftwaffe. The Soviet Union maintained forces in the Belarusian and Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republics ready to execute the eastern elements outlined by the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact if ordered by Joseph Stalin and Georgy Zhukov.

Course of the Invasion

The German assault began with operations including Fall Weiss featuring breakthroughs at borders near Westerplatte, Hel Peninsula, Tczew, Łódź, and Kraków. Luftwaffe attacks targeted infrastructure in Warsaw and rail junctions to isolate Polish forces and involved Luftwaffe units commanded by Hermann Göring. Polish defenses contested engagements at battles such as the Battle of the Bzura, the Battle of Wizna, the Battle of Mokra, the Defense of the Polish Post Office in Danzig, and the siege of Warsaw. German armored spearheads conducted encirclement operations while German infantry and SS formations pushed east. On 17 September the Red Army advanced following directives from Joseph Stalin and Vyacheslav Molotov to occupy territories specified in the secret protocol, engaging Polish units and seizing regions including Lviv (then Lwów), Wilno (then Vilnius), and eastern borderlands. By early October organized Polish resistance ended with capitulations such as the surrender of the Hel Peninsula and the last major units under Franciszek Kleeberg.

Occupation, Administration, and Atrocities

After military victory, Nazi Germany implemented administrative changes through instruments like the General Government and annexations to the Reich. Occupation policies by agencies including the Schutzstaffel and Gestapo enforced ethnic Germans’ privileges and targeted Polish elites, intelligentsia, clergy, and Jews. The Soviet Union carried out deportations and repression via the NKVD, affecting Polish officers and civilians; events such as the Katyn massacre later revealed killings of POWs. Atrocities and war crimes included massacres, executions, and persecution of Polish Jews and non-Jewish Poles, forced labor, and cultural suppression. Institutions affected included the Roman Catholic Church structures in Poland, universities such as the Jagiellonian University, and professional organizations targeted by the occupiers’ policies.

International Response and Diplomatic Consequences

The United Kingdom and French Third Republic declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939 in fulfillment of mutual assistance agreements, invoking treaties such as the Anglo-Polish military alliance; however, substantive military relief operations like the Saar offensive were limited. Diplomatic reactions involved states including Italy under Benito Mussolini, Japan, United States, and neutral states like Switzerland and Sweden. The Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact’s secret protocols shocked global opinion when revealed later, implicating Soviet Union diplomacy. The campaign shifted strategic calculations in forums such as the League of Nations and affected later conferences including Tehran Conference and Yalta Conference by shaping postwar borders and spheres of influence.

Aftermath and Legacy

The 1939 campaign resulted in the dissolution of the Second Polish Republic, mass population displacements, long-term occupation regimes, and the incorporation of Polish territories into Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union. Military personnel and political leaders formed the Polish government-in-exile and contributed to Allied efforts, including units aligned with Free France, the Royal Air Force, and later formations like the Polish Armed Forces in the West and the Polish People's Army under Soviet auspices. The invasion’s legacy influenced Cold War borders, postwar arrangements at the Potsdam Conference, historical memory in institutions such as the Institute of National Remembrance, and cultural works addressing 1939 events by authors, filmmakers, and historians studying episodes including the Siege of Warsaw, the Katyn massacre, and civilian suffering. The campaign remains central to commemorations in Poland, diplomatic relations among Germany, Russia, and Poland, and scholarship on the origins of World War II.

Category:Invasions of Poland Category:World War II battles