1916 Zoning Resolution
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| 1916 Zoning Resolution | |
|---|---|
 Samuel Gottscho · Public domain · source | |
| Name | 1916 Zoning Resolution |
| Enacted | 1916 |
| Jurisdiction | New York City |
| Signatories | George McAneny; John Purroy Mitchel (Mayor) |
| Related legislation | Planning and Zoning; Euclidean zoning |
| Amended | 1961 Zoning Resolution of the City of New York |
1916 Zoning Resolution
The 1916 Zoning Resolution was a landmark municipal land-use law adopted in New York City that established the first comprehensive use of height and setback controls in the United States. It emerged from conflicts involving skyscraper proposals near Grand Central Terminal, disputes between developers such as Harry S. Black and entities like New York Central Railroad, and advocacy by reformers including George McAneny and the Regional Plan Association. The Resolution influenced architects including Raymond Hood, Cass Gilbert, Eliel Saarinen, and firms like McKim, Mead & White and altered precedents set by earlier building codes in cities such as Chicago and Boston.
Background and Motivations
Rapid construction of towers after the 1901 Pan-American Exposition era and the completion of the Singer Building and Metropolitan Life Insurance Company Tower created disputes over light, air, and street congestion in Manhattan near Times Square, Herald Square, and the Bowery. The high-rise proposal for the Equitable Building intensified conflicts with transit operators including Interborough Rapid Transit Company and rail terminals like Pennsylvania Station and Grand Central Terminal. Civic groups such as the Municipal Art Society and planners associated with Daniel Burnham and Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. promoted controls similar to proposals in zoning discussions in Boston and Philadelphia, while legal doctrines from cases like Rutgers v. United States and property law theories influenced municipal action. Mayor John Purroy Mitchel supported reform amid political debates involving Tammany Hall and businessmen including J. P. Morgan.
Provisions and Zoning Mechanisms
The Resolution introduced districts and controls on structure height relative to street width, mandated sky exposure planes, and required setbacks patterned after studies by Edward Bassett and the New York City Planning Commission. It categorized uses into residential, commercial, and unrestricted zones with distinctions later echoed in Euclidean zoning models advocated by planners such as John Nolen and institutions like the American Institute of Planners. The law permitted high FARs (floor area ratios) in exchange for setbacks and open spaces, referenced standards akin to contemporary codes in Chicago School practice, and defined bulk limits that guided projects by developers like Irving Trust Company and designers like William Van Alen. It also established enforcement roles for municipal bodies including the Board of Estimate and the Department of Buildings.
Impact on Urban Form and Architecture
The Resolution reshaped the Manhattan skyline, stimulating tower setbacks and stepped forms exemplified by the Chrysler Building, Empire State Building, and 30 Rockefeller Plaza. Architects such as Raymond Hood, William Van Alen, Cass Gilbert, and Eliel Saarinen adapted to setback envelopes, producing Art Deco facades and massing seen in works by firms like Shreve, Lamb & Harmon and Harrison & Abramovitz. The controls influenced street-level conditions along corridors like Fifth Avenue, Broadway, and Park Avenue, affecting development of landmarks such as St. Patrick's Cathedral, Woolworth Building, and the Flatiron Building. Urbanists including Lewis Mumford and Jane Jacobs later debated the effects on neighborhood scale and pedestrian life, while photographers like Berenice Abbott documented the transformed cityscape.
Legal Challenges and Revisions
Immediately contested in courts by property owners and real estate interests including companies tied to figures like Frederick W. Vanderbilt, the Resolution survived challenges invoking constitutional protections and takings doctrine before courts influenced by precedents such as Pennsylvania Coal Co. v. Mahon later in the century. Amendments and administrative interpretations adjusted use categories, density rules, and enforcement procedures; municipal efforts culminating in the 1961 comprehensive revision, the 1961 Zoning Resolution, superseded many original mechanisms while retaining the original emphasis on bulk controls championed by planners like James Marston Fitch and agencies such as the New York City Department of City Planning.
Influence on Subsequent Zoning and Planning
The 1916 framework served as a model for zoning ordinances across United States municipalities, informing codes in cities including Chicago, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Philadelphia, Boston, and Washington, D.C.. It shaped academic curricula at institutions such as Columbia University and Massachusetts Institute of Technology and influenced planning doctrines discussed at conferences of the American Planning Association and predecessors like the American Society of Planning Officials. International observers in London, Paris, Berlin, Tokyo, and Buenos Aires examined the Resolution while municipal planners such as Le Corbusier and Patrick Abercrombie debated alternate paradigms. The mechanism of setback-based bulk regulation informed later devices including transfer of development rights (TDRs) and landmark preservation tools managed by bodies like the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission.
Criticism and Legacy
Critics including Jane Jacobs, Lewis Mumford, and later scholars like Rem Koolhaas argued the Resolution prioritized skyline aesthetics and developer flexibility over street-level vitality, social equity, and neighborhood diversity, fueling debates that extended to issues raised by Robert Moses projects and postwar urban renewal programs. Supporters highlighted its role in providing order, protecting light and air, and enabling modern skyscraper design, while historians such as Kenneth Jackson and Mike Wallace evaluated its socioeconomic consequences for neighborhoods across Manhattan, Brooklyn, and the Bronx. The Resolution remains central to discussions about heritage, density, and sustainability in contemporary planning discourse involving entities like UN-Habitat, American Institute of Architects, and local advocacy groups such as The Municipal Art Society of New York.