Treaty of 1855

Treaty of 1855, also known as the Lame Bull Treaty or the Judith River Treaty, was a pivotal agreement negotiated between the United States and several Plains Indian nations in the northern territories. It aimed to establish peaceful relations, define tribal territories, and secure safe passage for American settlers and government expeditions. The treaty significantly reshaped the political and geographical landscape of the northern Great Plains and the Rocky Mountains.

Background and Negotiations

In the early 1850s, increasing tensions on the northern plains, driven by westward expansion, the Oregon Trail, and the discovery of gold in the Rocky Mountains, prompted federal action. The United States Congress had recently created the Washington Territory, and its governor, Isaac I. Stevens, was also the superintendent of Indian Affairs for the region. Stevens, alongside Alfred Cumming, superintendent for the central superintendency, was tasked with negotiating a comprehensive peace among the often-warring tribes and with the United States government. The primary goal was to end intertribal warfare, particularly between the powerful Blackfeet Confederacy and tribes like the Flathead, Nez Perce, and Crow, to allow for safe settlement and travel. The council convened in October 1855 at the mouth of the Judith River in present-day Montana, a site chosen for its centrality to the involved nations, including the Piegan, Blood, Gros Ventre, and Assiniboine.

Terms and Provisions

The treaty's core provisions created a complex framework for shared and exclusive land use. It designated a vast "common hunting ground" spanning from the Musselshell River to the Yellowstone River and north to the Missouri River, where all signatory tribes could hunt peacefully. Exclusive tribal territories were also defined: the Blackfeet Confederacy retained lands north of the Missouri River, while the Crow territory was confirmed south of the Yellowstone River. The treaty forbade intertribal warfare, mandated peaceful relations with the United States, and allowed for the construction of government posts, agencies, and roads, including those related to the Mullan Road project. In exchange for these concessions, the tribes were promised annuities in goods and services for twenty years, with the understanding they would transition to agriculture.

Signatories and Ratification

The treaty was signed on October 17, 1855, by commissioners Isaac I. Stevens and Alfred Cumming. Key indigenous signatories included the Piegan leader Lame Bull, along with numerous other chiefs and headmen representing the Blood, Blackfoot, Gros Ventre, Flathead, Nez Perce, and Kootenai peoples. The signing ceremony was a major diplomatic event, involving lengthy councils and symbolic exchanges. The signed document was transmitted to Washington, D.C., where it was ratified by the United States Senate with an amendment on March 8, 1856. President Franklin Pierce proclaimed the treaty in effect on April 15, 1856, following the exchange of ratifications.

Implementation and Enforcement

Implementation of the treaty proved immediately challenging. The United States Army and the Office of Indian Affairs struggled to enforce the peace provisions and deliver annuities consistently. The designated Fort Benton became a key agency site, but conflicts persisted, especially as American traffic increased along the Mullan Road and following the Colorado Gold Rush. The fundamental conflict between the nomadic buffalo-hunting culture of the Blackfeet Confederacy and the encroachment of settlers, miners, and the Northern Pacific Railroad led to repeated violations and outbreaks of violence. Key events like the Baker Massacre in 1870 demonstrated the complete breakdown of the treaty's peace guarantees, as the United States government increasingly used military force to impose its will.

Consequences and Legacy

The Treaty of 1855 had profound and lasting consequences. It formally opened millions of acres in present-day Montana and Wyoming to American settlement and resource extraction, directly facilitating later events like the Montana Gold Rush. For the signatory tribes, it began the process of land loss and confinement that culminated in the establishment of the Blackfeet Indian Reservation, the Flathead Indian Reservation, and the Fort Belknap Indian Reservation through subsequent agreements like the Sweetgrass Hills Treaty. The treaty is a foundational document in the legal history of federal-tribal relations in the region and remains cited in modern legal disputes over hunting rights, water rights, and land claims. It represents a critical, though ultimately unfulfilled, attempt at a diplomatic solution during a period of intense conflict on the American frontier.

Category:1855 in the United States Category:History of Montana Category:Treaties of the Blackfeet Category:October 1855 events