Second-wave feminism

Second-wave feminism
Name	Second-wave feminism
Date	Early 1960s – early 1980s
Location	Primarily the United States and Western Europe
Causes	Post-World War II gender role reinforcement, civil rights movements
Goals	Equality in law, workplace, family, and sexuality
Methods	Consciousness-raising, legislative lobbying, protests, publications
Result	Significant legal and social reforms; emergence of third-wave feminism

Second-wave feminism was a period of feminist activity and thought that began in the early 1960s and lasted through the early 1980s, primarily in the United States and Western Europe. It focused broadly on issues of equality and discrimination beyond the initial suffrage goals of the first-wave feminism. The movement sought to transform societal attitudes and dismantle institutionalized sexism in areas including the workplace, family life, and reproductive rights, building upon the foundational work of earlier activists like Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton.

Origins and historical context

The movement emerged in a context of significant social upheaval, drawing energy and tactical inspiration from the American Civil Rights Movement and the New Left. Many white, middle-class women who had entered the workforce during World War II were pushed back into domestic roles in the post-war era, a period idealized by media like Father Knows Best. The 1963 publication of The Feminine Mystique by Betty Friedan articulated this widespread dissatisfaction, which she termed "the problem that has no name." Simultaneously, women in groups like the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee and the Students for a Democratic Society experienced sexism within these radical organizations, prompting them to organize independently. Government actions, such as the 1961 President's Commission on the Status of Women established by John F. Kennedy, also highlighted systemic inequalities, setting the stage for organized activism.

Key issues and goals

Central demands included equal pay for equal work, an end to sexual harassment, and access to childcare. A paramount goal was reproductive freedom, encompassing both access to contraception, bolstered by the 1965 Griswold v. Connecticut decision, and legal abortion, achieved nationally in the United States via the 1973 Roe v. Wade ruling. The movement fought to pass the Equal Rights Amendment to the United States Constitution and for enforcement of laws like Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which prohibited employment discrimination. Activists also targeted the legal system, seeking reforms to laws on rape, domestic violence, and marital property, challenging institutions like the Miss America pageant for perpetuating restrictive beauty standards.

Major organizations and figures

The movement contained diverse, sometimes conflicting, strands. The liberal feminist wing was represented by the National Organization for Women, founded in 1966 by Betty Friedan and others like Pauline Murray. More radical factions included New York Radical Women, which spawned the Redstockings and W.I.T.C.H., and activists such as Shulamith Firestone and Ellen Willis. Gloria Steinem became a leading media figure, co-founding Ms. magazine. The Combahee River Collective, formed by Barbara Smith and other Black feminists, articulated an influential intersectional critique. Key political figures included Representatives Bella Abzug and Shirley Chisholm, while thinkers like Kate Millett and Andrea Dworkin provided foundational theoretical analysis.

Theoretical developments

Theory moved beyond liberal arguments for legal equality to analyze the root structures of patriarchy. Simone de Beauvoir's 1949 work The Second Sex provided a crucial philosophical foundation, arguing that woman is made, not born. Kate Millett's 1970 book Sexual Politics applied the term "patriarchy" to systematic male domination. Radical feminists like Shulamith Firestone in The Dialectic of Sex argued that biological reproduction was the basis of women’s oppression. The concept of "the personal is political," developed through consciousness-raising groups, challenged the division between private life and public policy. Socialist feminists, including Juliet Mitchell, synthesized Marxism with feminist critique, while the Combahee River Collective Statement pioneered analysis of interlocking systems of race, gender, and class oppression.

Cultural impact and criticism

The movement profoundly influenced culture, leading to the creation of women's studies programs at universities like San Diego State University and the integration of feminist perspectives into art, literature, and music. It sparked "women's liberation" publications, feminist health clinics like the Boston Women's Health Book Collective, and shelters for victims of domestic violence. Criticism came from multiple fronts: conservative opponents like Phyllis Schlafly led the successful campaign against the Equal Rights Amendment. From within, women of color, including Audre Lorde and Cherríe Moraga, and working-class women criticized the movement for focusing on the experiences of white, middle-class women. Lesbian feminists, through groups like the Radicalesbians, challenged the movement's heteronormativity, leading to tensions like the Lavender Menace protest.

Legacy and transition to third-wave feminism

The era achieved substantial legal reforms, including the 1972 Title IX, the 1974 Equal Credit Opportunity Act, and the 1978 Pregnancy Discrimination Act. It permanently altered public discourse on gender, family, and work. However, by the early 1980s, the rise of the New Right, internal divisions, and the failure to ratify the Equal Rights Amendment signaled a shift. The transition to third-wave feminism in the 1990s was marked by a focus on individuality, diversity, and postmodern theory, influenced by earlier critiques from women of color and the emergence of riot grrrl punk culture. Thinkers like Judith Butler and events like the 1991 Anita Hill hearings built upon, and reacted to, the foundations and perceived limitations of the preceding wave.

Category:Feminism Category:Social movements Category:20th-century history