Science, Technology, and Society

Science, Technology, and Society
Name	Science, Technology, and Society
Subdisciplines	History of science, Science and technology studies, Sociology of scientific knowledge, Ethics of technology
Notable works	The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Laboratory Life, The Social Construction of Technological Systems
Notable individuals	Thomas Kuhn, Bruno Latour, Donna Haraway, Sheila Jasanoff, Robert K. Merton
Related fields	Philosophy of science, Innovation studies, Environmental studies, Bioethics

Science, Technology, and Society. Science, Technology, and Society (STS) is an interdisciplinary field that examines how social, political, and cultural values influence scientific research and technological innovation, and how these, in turn, affect society. It challenges the notion of science and technology as purely objective or autonomous forces, instead analyzing them as deeply embedded in human affairs. The field draws from diverse disciplines including history, sociology, philosophy, and anthropology to understand the complex co-production of knowledge, tools, and social order.

Historical development

The roots of STS can be traced to mid-20th century works that questioned the linear progress of science. Thomas Kuhn's seminal 1962 book, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, introduced the concept of paradigm shifts, arguing that scientific change is influenced by social and psychological factors within scientific communities. Concurrently, sociologists like Robert K. Merton studied the norms of science, such as those exhibited at institutions like the Royal Society. The 1970s and 1980s saw the rise of more constructivist approaches, with the Edinburgh School developing the Strong Programme and scholars like Bruno Latour and Steve Woolgar conducting ethnographic studies in places like the Salk Institute in their work Laboratory Life. This period also saw the emergence of the Social construction of technology (SCOT) framework, analyzing artifacts like the bicycle and the fluorescent lamp.

Theoretical frameworks

Several core theoretical frameworks structure STS inquiry. The Social construction of technology (SCOT) emphasizes how relevant social groups shape technological artifacts. Actor–network theory (ANT), developed by Bruno Latour, Michel Callon, and John Law, treats humans, institutions, and non-human actors (like the microbe or the speed bump) as equal participants in networked associations. The Sociology of scientific knowledge (SSK) examines how social interests influence the content of science itself, not just its applications. Feminist STS scholars, such as Donna Haraway in her Cyborg Manifesto and Sandra Harding with the concept of standpoint theory, have critically analyzed gendered dimensions in fields from primatology to artificial intelligence.

Key issues and debates

STS engages with numerous contentious issues at the intersection of knowledge, innovation, and public life. Debates over scientific controversies include those surrounding climate change, vaccine hesitancy, and genetically modified foods. The field critically examines the digital divide and issues of algorithmic bias stemming from companies like Google and Facebook. Ethical dilemmas in emerging technologies are central, from human enhancement and CRISPR gene editing to the societal implications of autonomous weapons and surveillance capitalism. Furthermore, STS scholars analyze public trust in science, as seen during events like the COVID-19 pandemic and in responses to organizations like the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and the World Health Organization.

Impact on institutions and professions

STS perspectives have significantly reshaped institutions and professional practices. Within higher education, dedicated STS programs have been established at universities like the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cornell University, and the University of Edinburgh. Funding bodies, including the National Science Foundation (NSF) in the United States, have incorporated requirements for broader societal impact and ethical, legal and social implications (ELSI) research, particularly in areas like the Human Genome Project. In the corporate world, technology firms engage with concepts of responsible innovation and value-sensitive design. Professional societies, such as the Society for Social Studies of Science (4S) and the European Association for the Study of Science and Technology (EASST), facilitate scholarly exchange.

Policy and governance

STS research directly informs science and technology policy and governance. It provides frameworks for understanding risk assessment and regulation in areas like nuclear power (e.g., post-Fukushima), nanotechnology, and synthetic biology. The concept of technological citizenship underpins efforts in public engagement with science and technology, such as consensus conferences and citizen science projects. Scholars like Sheila Jasanoff have developed the idea of civic epistemology to compare how different political cultures, from the United States to the European Union, legitimize knowledge for policymaking. International agreements, like the Paris Agreement on climate, are also analyzed as sites where science, technology, and global politics intersect.

Future directions and emerging trends

The future of STS involves grappling with rapid technological and environmental changes. A major trend is the study of big data, machine learning, and the platform society, examining the power of corporations like Amazon and Tencent. The field is increasingly engaging with decolonization of knowledge, challenging Eurocentric histories of science and technology while highlighting indigenous knowledge systems. Environmental crises are driving work on Anthropocene studies, climate engineering, and just transitions. Furthermore, STS is turning its analytical tools toward the sciences themselves, investigating practices in open science, reproducibility, and the political economy of research funding from entities like DARPA and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation.

Category:Interdisciplinary fields Category:Science studies Category:Technology studies