Northern Arapaho

Northern Arapaho. The Northern Arapaho (Hinono'eino) are a federally recognized Native American tribe historically centered on the Great Plains, now based primarily on the Wind River Indian Reservation in Wyoming. They are one of two major divisions of the Arapaho people, the other being the Southern Arapaho, with whom they share linguistic and cultural roots. Their traditional territory spanned from present-day Colorado and Wyoming into Nebraska and South Dakota, where they were known as skilled horsemen and buffalo hunters.

History

The Arapaho people originated in the Midwest, with oral history and linguistic evidence suggesting a former life as agriculturalists near the Red River of the North. By the early 19th century, pressure from Ojibwe expansion and the acquisition of horses propelled their migration onto the Great Plains. The tribe eventually split into Northern and Southern bands, a division solidified by the 1830s. The Northern Arapaho formed key alliances, most significantly with their traditional allies the Cheyenne and later the Lakota Sioux, often opposing the U.S. Army and rival tribes like the Shoshone, Ute, and Pawnee. They were involved in conflicts such as the Colorado War and the Battle of the Little Bighorn. Following the Medicine Lodge Treaty of 1867, which assigned the Southern Arapaho to Oklahoma, the Northern Arapaho, after a period of hardship and negotiation, were placed on the Wind River Indian Reservation with their former enemies, the Eastern Shoshone, in 1878 under the oversight of Indian agent James Irwin.

Language

The Northern Arapaho speak the Arapaho language (Hinónoʼeitíít), an Algonquian language closely related to that of the Gros Ventre and more distantly to Cheyenne and Blackfoot. It is a polysynthetic language known for its complex verb structures and is critically endangered, with only a small number of fluent elders remaining. Preservation efforts are led by institutions like the Wind River Tribal College, which offers language courses, and the Arapaho Language Lodge, a project dedicated to creating immersive learning materials. The language was used by Arapaho code talkers during World War II, notably in the Pacific Theater.

Culture

Traditional Northern Arapaho culture was deeply spiritual and organized around the bison hunt and communal ceremonies. Central to their religious life is the Sacred Pipe Ceremony and the annual Sun Dance, a ceremony of renewal and prayer. The Seven Sacred Ceremonies of the Arapaho, received through cultural heroes, structure their ritual calendar. Society was organized into age-graded men's societies, such as the Crazy Dogs and Kit Fox Men, which served military, policing, and social functions. Distinctive material culture included elaborate parfleche bags, tipis decorated with ledger art, and regalia featuring porcupine quillwork and later, beadwork. Key cultural figures include Water Sprinkler, a trickster-transformer in their mythology.

Government

The Northern Arapaho Tribe operates under a constitution approved under the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934. The governing body is the Northern Arapaho Business Council (NABC), composed of six elected members who serve staggered four-year terms. The tribe, as a sovereign nation, maintains a government-to-government relationship with the U.S. Department of the Interior and the Bureau of Indian Affairs. They share jurisdictional responsibilities on the Wind River Indian Reservation with the Eastern Shoshone Tribe under the terms of the 1937 Wind River Rules and Regulations. The tribe operates its own Tribal Court, Police Department, and various executive departments.

Contemporary life

Today, the Northern Arapaho Tribe is a vibrant community focused on economic development, cultural preservation, and education. Major enterprises include the Wind River Hotel and Casino, the Little Wind Casino, and various retail and construction businesses. The tribe provides services through the Northern Arapaho Tribal Housing Authority and the Wind River Family and Community Healthcare system. Education is supported by the tribally controlled Wind River Tribal College, part of the American Indian Higher Education Consortium. Cultural revitalization remains a priority, with ongoing efforts in language immersion, the practice of the Sun Dance, and the maintenance of the Ethete and Arapahoe communities. The tribe actively participates in regional issues, including water rights negotiations related to the Wind River and environmental stewardship.