Islamic fundamentalism

Islamic fundamentalism. It is a term used to describe a broad movement within Islam that seeks a return to what its adherents perceive as the foundational principles of the faith, derived directly from the Quran and the Sunnah of the Prophet Muhammad. This perspective often emphasizes strict adherence to Sharia (Islamic law) and rejects many later theological interpretations and cultural practices as innovations. While diverse in its expressions, it is frequently associated with a literalist interpretation of sacred texts and a desire to order both personal life and society according to these principles.

Definition and core concepts

The term itself is complex and often contested, applied to a wide spectrum of thought and action. Core concepts universally include the absolute sovereignty of Allah (Tawhid), the final authority of the Quran as the literal word of God, and the imperative to follow the example of Muhammad and the early Muslim community, the Salaf. This often manifests as a rejection of Bid‘ah (religious innovation) and a critical stance toward traditional schools of jurisprudence like the Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi‘i, and Hanbali madhhabs in favor of direct scriptural engagement. The concept of Hakimiyyah, or the rule of God, as articulated by thinkers like Sayyid Qutb and Abul A'la Maududi, is a central political tenet, arguing that human governance must be subordinate to divine law. Movements such as Wahhabism, championed by the House of Saud in alliance with Muhammad ibn Abd al-Wahhab, and modern Salafism are frequently cited as key embodiments of these ideas.

Historical development

Modern expressions are deeply rooted in 18th and 19th-century reform movements that responded to perceived decline and external domination. The aforementioned Wahhabi movement in the Arabian Peninsula formed a crucial early model. The late 19th and early 20th centuries saw the rise of reformist scholars like Muhammad Abduh and Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, who, while modernists, emphasized returning to original sources. The dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and the abolition of the Caliphate by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk in 1924 created a profound crisis of religious authority. This vacuum was filled by organizations like the Muslim Brotherhood, founded in Egypt by Hassan al-Banna in 1928, which became a prototype for Islamist political activism. Later, the Iranian Revolution of 1979, led by Ruhollah Khomeini, demonstrated the potential for a successful political revolution based on Shi'a revolutionary principles, inspiring movements globally. Events like the Soviet–Afghan War and the subsequent rise of Al-Qaeda under Osama bin Laden further shaped its militant internationalist strand.

Ideological foundations

Ideology is built upon a distinct interpretation of Islamic theology and law. The works of Ibn Taymiyyah, a 14th-century Hanbali scholar, are heavily influential, particularly his rulings on Takfir (excommunication of Muslims). The 20th-century writings of the Muslim Brotherhood's Sayyid Qutb, especially Milestones, provided a radical framework for confronting what he termed modern Jahiliyyah (pre-Islamic ignorance). Similarly, the founder of Jamaat-e-Islami, Abul A'la Maududi, systematized the concept of an Islamic state. For Shi'a variants, the theory of Velayat-e Faqih (Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist), developed by Ruhollah Khomeini, serves as the cornerstone for political authority, as seen in the Islamic Republic of Iran. These ideologies often promote a comprehensive system covering all aspects of life, from personal dress codes to economic systems, opposing both Western secularism and communism.

Political manifestations and movements

Political expressions range from grassroots preaching and social service provision to revolutionary struggle and state formation. The Muslim Brotherhood has engaged in political participation in Egypt, Jordan, and Tunisia, while also facing severe repression from regimes like those of Gamal Abdel Nasser and Hosni Mubarak. The Taliban established the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan twice, enforcing a strict interpretation of Sharia. Hezbollah, backed by Iran, functions as a major political and military force in Lebanon. Militant jihadist groups, including Al-Qaeda, ISIL, and Boko Haram, seek to overthrow existing governments and establish caliphates through violent insurgency, as seen in conflicts in Syria, Iraq, and the Sahel region. State-sponsored forms are evident in the legal and social policies of Saudi Arabia (influenced by Wahhabism) and the Islamic Republic of Iran.

Societal impact and criticism

Its influence has profoundly affected societies across the Muslim world and global politics. Internally, it has spurred religious revival, charitable work, and increased piety, but also led to strict social controls, affecting women's rights, LGBT communities, and religious minorities like Ahmadiyya and Christians. Criticisms are extensive and come from diverse quarters. Many Muslim theologians, modernists, and secular intellectuals reject its literalist interpretations as ahistorical and argue it stifles Ijtihad (independent reasoning). Governments from Algeria to Egypt have violently suppressed associated groups, citing national security. Western governments, particularly the United States following the September 11 attacks, have engaged in military and intelligence campaigns against jihadist networks. Human rights organizations, such as Amnesty International, consistently document abuses committed by both fundamentalist groups and states enforcing fundamentalist laws, highlighting tensions with universal human rights frameworks.

Category:Islam Category:Religious fundamentalism Category:Political movements