Hundred Years' War

Hundred Years' War was a series of armed conflicts waged between the Kingdom of England and the Kingdom of France from 1337 to 1453. It was primarily a dynastic struggle for control of the French throne, stemming from the complex feudal relationships between the Plantagenet and Valois royal houses. The intermittent warfare, spanning 116 years, was characterized by major English victories in the early decades, a prolonged stalemate, and a dramatic French resurgence in the final phase, fundamentally reshaping the political and social landscapes of both nations.

Background and causes

The origins stemmed from the disputed succession following the death of Charles IV of France in 1328, the last direct Capetian king. Edward III of England, as the son of Charles IV's sister, claimed the throne, but French nobles invoked Salic law to pass it to Philip VI of the House of Valois. This dynastic conflict was exacerbated by long-standing tensions over the Duchy of Aquitaine, a large territory in southwestern France held by the English crown as a fiefdom from the French king, leading to constant jurisdictional disputes. Economic rivalry over the lucrative Flemish wool trade and a history of skirmishes, including the War of Saint-Sardos, further poisoned relations between the courts in Westminster and Paris.

Major phases and campaigns

The conflict is often divided into three main phases. The Edwardian War (1337–1360) began with English expeditions into Flanders and Normandy, culminating in decisive victories at the Battle of Crécy and the Battle of Poitiers, which led to the favorable Treaty of Brétigny. The Caroline War (1369–1389) saw a successful French reconquest under Charles V and his constable, Bertrand du Guesclin, employing a strategy of attrition and avoiding pitched battles. Following a long period of truce and internal strife in both kingdoms, the Lancastrian War (1415–1453) erupted with Henry V's invasion, his stunning victory at the Battle of Agincourt, and the subsequent English conquest of Normandy, which was eventually reversed by a French revival inspired by Joan of Arc and solidified under Charles VII.

Key battles and sieges

The war featured several landmark engagements that demonstrated evolving military tactics. Early English triumphs were defined by the use of the longbow at Sluys, Crécy, and Agincourt, where dismounted men-at-arms and archers defeated larger French feudal armies. Major sieges, such as the lengthy Siege of Calais and the Siege of Orléans, were pivotal in controlling territory. The tide turned with French victories at the Battle of Patay, which showcased their revitalized heavy cavalry, and the decisive Battle of Castillon, where early cannon and field fortifications defeated an English relief force, effectively ending the conflict.

Notable figures

Prominent monarchs directed the war, including Edward III, Henry V, and the mentally unstable Charles VI, whose reign sparked the Armagnac–Burgundian Civil War. Key military leaders included the English Black Prince and John of Gaunt, and the French commanders Bertrand du Guesclin and Jean Bureau. The conflict's most iconic figure is Joan of Arc, whose leadership at Orléans and the subsequent Loire Campaign catalyzed French morale and the coronation of Charles VII at Reims. The powerful Dukes of Burgundy, first allied with England and later reconciled with France, played a crucial political role.

Consequences and legacy

The war solidified the Kingdom of France as a centralized nation-state, with a standing army and reduced feudal influence, while England plunged into the internal strife of the Wars of the Roses. Militarily, it heralded the decline of the heavily armored knight and the rise of professional infantry and artillery. Culturally, it fostered distinct national identities in both countries and influenced contemporary literature, such as the works of Jean Froissart. The English loss of all continental possessions except the Pale of Calais redirected its ambitions toward the British Isles and overseas exploration, while France emerged as the dominant power in Western Europe.

Category:Medieval wars Category:History of England Category:History of France