Hinduism

Hinduism. It is a major world religion and the predominant tradition of the Indian subcontinent, with a diverse body of philosophy, ritual, and mythology. Often described as a way of life, it encompasses a wide spectrum of beliefs and practices, unified by shared concepts such as dharma, karma, and moksha. Its origins are traced to the ancient Vedas, and it has evolved through a long history of interaction with other traditions like Buddhism and Jainism.

Etymology and nomenclature

The term "Hindu" derives from the Indus River, known as *Sindhu* in Sanskrit, used by ancient Persian invaders to describe the land and its people. The word "Hinduism" itself is a relatively modern, exonymic construct, popularized during the British Raj for administrative classification. Historically, adherents have referred to their tradition as *Sanatana Dharma*, meaning the eternal or universal law. Other indigenous terms include *Vaidika Dharma*, emphasizing the authority of the Vedas, and regional designations linked to specific schools or deities.

Beliefs and philosophy

Core beliefs are diverse but often center on concepts like Brahman, the ultimate, formless reality, and Atman, the individual soul, with Advaita Vedanta positing their non-dual identity. The cycle of rebirth, or samsara, is governed by the law of karma, where actions determine future existences. The ultimate spiritual goal is moksha, liberation from this cycle. The tradition accommodates a vast array of theologies, from the monism of Adi Shankara to the dualism of Madhvacharya and the devotional theism seen in the works of Ramanuja. Major deities include the Trimurti of Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva, along with goddesses like Durga and Lakshmi.

Practices and rituals

Daily practices, or *sadhana*, vary widely and can include personal worship (*puja*), meditation (*dhyana*), and the recitation of mantras or sacred texts like the Bhagavad Gita. Important life-cycle rites, or *samskaras*, mark stages from birth to death. Yoga, in its various forms such as Hatha Yoga and Raja Yoga, is a central discipline for spiritual and physical well-being. Major festivals, celebrated across regions, include Diwali, Holi, and Navaratri, often involving pilgrimage to sacred sites like Varanasi, Rameswaram, and the Kumbh Mela.

Scriptures and texts

The foundational scriptures are the Śruti texts, considered revealed, which include the ancient Vedas—the Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda, and Atharvaveda—and the philosophical Upanishads. The later *Smriti* literature encompasses a vast corpus, including the epic narratives of the Mahabharata and the Ramayana, the Puranas which detail mythology and cosmology, and the law codes like the Manusmriti. The Bhagavad Gita, a part of the Mahabharata, is a particularly influential philosophical dialogue. Commentarial traditions by scholars like Shankara and Abhinavagupta on texts such as the Brahma Sutras are also highly authoritative.

History and development

Its history is often periodized into the Vedic period, centered on the Indo-Aryans and the composition of the Vedas in the northwestern regions of the subcontinent. The subsequent Epic and Puranic period saw the rise of major deities like Vishnu and Shiva and the composition of the great epics. The medieval era witnessed the growth of intense devotional movements, or *Bhakti*, led by saints like Mirabai and Tulsidas, and the development of sophisticated philosophical schools. The modern period includes reform movements such as the Brahmo Samaj founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy and the Arya Samaj of Dayananda Saraswati.

Society and culture

Historically, social structure was influenced by the varna system and the complex caste system, detailed in texts like the Manusmriti, though these have been subject to significant reform and criticism. The tradition has profoundly shaped the art, architecture, and culture of South and Southeast Asia, evident in temple complexes like Angkor Wat in Cambodia and the Brihadeeswarar Temple in Tamil Nadu. Classical dance forms such as Bharatanatyam and Odissi, and musical traditions rooted in the Sama Veda and theoretical texts like the Natyashastra, are integral expressions of its cultural legacy.