First Gulf War

First Gulf War. The conflict, initiated by the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in August 1990, was a decisive military operation to expel Iraqi forces and restore the sovereignty of the Kuwaiti government. A broad international coalition, authorized by the United Nations Security Council and led by the United States, launched a massive air campaign followed by a ground assault in early 1991. The swift campaign resulted in a decisive victory for coalition forces, leading to the liberation of Kuwait but leaving the regime of Saddam Hussein in power in Baghdad.

Background and causes

The roots of the conflict lay in longstanding territorial disputes and economic tensions following the Iran–Iraq War. The government of Saddam Hussein accused Kuwait of slant drilling into the Rumaila oil field and exceeding OPEC production quotas, which depressed global oil prices and crippled the Iraqi economy burdened by war debt. Diplomatic negotiations between Baghdad and Kuwait City failed, and Iraq also alleged historical claims that Kuwait was a former province of the Ottoman Empire's Basra region. The geopolitical context was shaped by the recent end of the Cold War, which allowed for unprecedented cooperation within the United Nations Security Council. The administration of George H. W. Bush viewed the unchecked aggression as a threat to Saudi Arabia and the stability of the entire Persian Gulf region, a vital interest for global energy supplies.

Course of the conflict

The war commenced with Operation Desert Shield, the defensive buildup of coalition forces in Saudi Arabia following the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. The offensive phase, Operation Desert Storm, began on 17 January 1991 with a massive aerial bombardment targeting Iraqi command centers, Republican Guard units, and infrastructure in Baghdad and Kuwait. Key events included the Battle of Khafji, a minor Iraqi incursion into Saudi Arabia, and the extensive use of Tomahawk strikes and stealth aircraft like the F-117 Nighthawk. The ground campaign, Operation Desert Sabre, launched on 24 February, featuring a large flanking maneuver through the Saudi Arabian desert and a direct thrust into Kuwait. Major engagements were the Battle of 73 Easting and the Battle of Medina Ridge, which decimated Iraqi armored divisions. Hostilities concluded with a ceasefire on 28 February after the liberation of Kuwait City.

Coalition forces and Iraqi military

The multinational coalition assembled under United Nations Security Council Resolution 678 was unprecedented in scale and diversity. The United States Central Command, under General Norman Schwarzkopf Jr., provided the bulk of forces, including the VII Corps and the XVIII Airborne Corps. Key contributors included the British Army's 1st Armoured Division, the French Army's Daguet Division, and major Arab contingents from Egypt, Syria, and Saudi Arabia. The Iraqi military, one of the world's largest at the time, was organized around the elite Republican Guard and a large conscript army. Its strategy relied on static defensive positions along the Saudi Arabia border, known as the Saddam Line, and the threat of using chemical weapons, which were never deployed. The Iraqi air force proved largely ineffective, with many aircraft fleeing to Iran.

Aftermath and legacy

The immediate aftermath saw the restoration of the Al Sabah dynasty in Kuwait, which was left devastated by Iraqi sabotage of hundreds of oil wells. In Iraq, the conflict resulted in severe infrastructure damage, economic hardship, and the subsequent suppression of Shia and Kurdish uprisings. The war established a new security architecture in the Gulf region, with a permanent increase in U.S. military presence and the continuation of No-fly zones over northern and southern Iraq. It also set the stage for ongoing weapons inspections and economic sanctions against the regime. The conflict is often cited as a model of successful multinational coalition warfare but also criticized for its incomplete political resolution, which contributed to the later 2003 invasion of Iraq.

International reaction and diplomacy

The international response was characterized by remarkable consensus at the United Nations. Key resolutions included United Nations Security Council Resolution 660, which condemned the invasion, and United Nations Security Council Resolution 678, which authorized member states to use "all necessary means." Diplomatic efforts, such as the final meeting in Geneva between James Baker and Tariq Aziz, failed to secure an Iraqi withdrawal. The coalition-building efforts of George H. W. Bush and Secretary of State James Baker secured critical support from the Soviet Union under Mikhail Gorbachev and Arab states, isolating Iraq. Opposition to the war was voiced by figures like Yasser Arafat of the PLO and in countries such as Jordan, which faced economic strain. The conflict also sparked large-scale anti-war protests in cities like San Francisco and London.