Contingencies of reinforcement

Contingencies of reinforcement are the cause-and-effect relationships between a behavior and the environmental events that follow it, which determine the future probability of that behavior. This core principle of operant conditioning, developed primarily by B.F. Skinner, posits that behavior is shaped and maintained by its consequences. The systematic analysis of these contingencies forms the foundation of behaviorism and its applied extensions, such as applied behavior analysis.

Definition and basic principles

A contingency of reinforcement specifies the relationship between an operant response, the antecedent discriminative stimulus that sets the occasion for it, and the reinforcing consequence that follows. This three-term contingency—often symbolized as S^D → R → S^R—is the fundamental unit of analysis in Skinnerian psychology. The principle hinges on the law of effect, originally articulated by Edward Thorndike, which states that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are strengthened. Key research validating these principles was conducted at Harvard University using the operant conditioning chamber, commonly known as the Skinner box.

Types of contingencies

The four basic types of contingencies are defined by whether a stimulus is presented or removed following a behavior, and whether this consequence increases or decreases the behavior's future frequency. Positive reinforcement occurs when a behavior is followed by the presentation of a stimulus, such as receiving praise for completing a task. Negative reinforcement involves the removal or avoidance of an aversive stimulus, like taking an aspirin to alleviate a headache. Positive punishment presents an aversive consequence after a behavior, such as receiving a speeding ticket. Negative punishment removes a desirable stimulus, as seen when a child loses television privileges for misbehavior.

Schedules of reinforcement

The pattern or rule determining which occurrences of a behavior are reinforced is called a schedule of reinforcement, a major area of investigation by Skinner and his colleagues like Charles Ferster. Continuous reinforcement reinforces every response, while intermittent reinforcement reinforces only some responses. Intermittent schedules include fixed-ratio schedules, used in piece-rate pay systems, and variable-ratio schedules, which produce high, steady response rates typified by slot machine gambling. fixed-interval schedules, studied in phenomena like the scalloping effect, and variable-interval schedules are also critical. The matching law, developed by Richard Herrnstein, describes how organisms distribute their responses across concurrent reinforcement schedules.

Applications in behavior modification

The systematic application of reinforcement contingencies is central to behavior modification across diverse settings. In clinical psychology, techniques like token economy systems are used in institutions such as Anna State Hospital. Within education, methods like precision teaching and direct instruction utilize contingent reinforcement to shape academic skills. In organizational behavior management, applied by consultants like Aubrey Daniels, performance feedback and incentive systems are designed based on these principles. Furthermore, contingency management is a key component in treatments for substance use disorders promoted by the National Institute on Drug Abuse.

Historical context and theoretical development

The experimental analysis of behavior and its contingencies emerged from the work of B.F. Skinner, building upon the radical behaviorism tradition that rejected mentalism. Skinner's seminal works, including The Behavior of Organisms and Beyond Freedom and Dignity, elaborated the theory. His research at University of Minnesota and later at Harvard University was instrumental. The philosophy was extended by others, such as Fred S. Keller with personalized system of instruction, and faced significant theoretical challenges from cognitive psychology proponents like Noam Chomsky and Albert Bandura. The field's primary journals, the Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior and the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, document its ongoing evolution and debate.

Category:Behaviorism Category:Psychological concepts