Civil Rights Act of 1957

Civil Rights Act of 1957 was the first federal civil rights legislation passed by the United States Congress since the Reconstruction era. Primarily aimed at protecting the voting rights of African Americans, the act established the United States Commission on Civil Rights and created a new Civil Rights Division within the United States Department of Justice. Though its final form was significantly weakened by a filibuster in the United States Senate, its passage marked a pivotal moment in the Civil Rights Movement and set a crucial legislative precedent.

Background and legislative history

The push for federal civil rights legislation gained momentum following the Second World War and the onset of the Cold War, as racial discrimination in the United States became an international embarrassment. Landmark events like the Brown v. Board of Education decision in 1954 and the Montgomery bus boycott beginning in 1955 highlighted systemic injustice. President Dwight D. Eisenhower, influenced by his Attorney General Herbert Brownell Jr., decided to prioritize voting rights legislation. The administration's initial bill was introduced in the 85th United States Congress by Representative Emanuel Celler, the Democratic chairman of the United States House Committee on the Judiciary.

Provisions of the act

The final legislation contained several key provisions. It created the bipartisan United States Commission on Civil Rights, tasked with investigating and reporting on denials of voting rights based on color, race, religion, or national origin. It also established a new Assistant Attorney General to lead a Civil Rights Division within the United States Department of Justice, empowering federal prosecutors to seek court injunctions against interference with the right to vote. Furthermore, the act expanded the jurisdiction of federal district courts to hear civil rights cases and authorized the Attorney General of the United States to initiate lawsuits for injunctive relief against violations of the Fifteenth Amendment.

Legislative process and passage

The bill faced its greatest challenge in the United States Senate, where a powerful coalition of Southern Democrats led by Senator Richard Russell Jr. of Georgia mounted a formidable filibuster. The Senate Majority Leader, Lyndon B. Johnson of Texas, played a complex role, seeking both to pass a bill and maintain his standing with southern colleagues. A pivotal compromise, brokered by Senator Strom Thurmond of South Carolina, removed the act's most potent enforcement mechanism: a provision allowing the Attorney General to file suits on behalf of individuals deprived of voting rights. Senator Thurmond then staged the longest one-person filibuster in Senate history, speaking for over 24 hours. The weakened bill ultimately passed the Senate and was signed into law by President Eisenhower at his summer retreat in Newport, Rhode Island.

Impact and legacy

Despite its limitations, the act had significant symbolic and institutional impact. It broke an 82-year legislative logjam on civil rights and demonstrated that the United States Congress could act, however tentatively, on racial equality. The newly created United States Commission on Civil Rights and the Civil Rights Division of the United States Department of Justice became permanent fixtures for investigating discrimination and enforcing federal law. The act provided a foundation and political experience that proved invaluable for the passage of stronger subsequent legislation, notably the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. It also elevated the national profile of then-Senate Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson.

Limitations and criticism

The act was widely criticized by civil rights leaders for its lack of strong enforcement powers. The removal of the provision for the Attorney General to file suits on behalf of individuals meant that the burden of litigation remained on the disenfranchised voter. Organizations like the NAACP and leaders such as Martin Luther King Jr. noted that it did little to immediately dismantle the systemic barriers like literacy tests and poll taxes erected by states such as Alabama and Mississippi. Its narrow focus on voting rights, while important, left other areas of segregation and discrimination in public accommodations, education, and employment unaddressed. Many historians view it as a necessary but deeply compromised first step.

Category:1957 in American law Category:United States federal civil rights legislation Category:85th United States Congress