Black September in Jordan

Black September in Jordan. This was a violent civil war fought between the Jordanian Armed Forces under King Hussein of Jordan and the armed factions of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), led by Yasser Arafat. The conflict, which raged from September 1970 to July 1971, resulted in the expulsion of Palestinian fedayeen from Jordan and a decisive reassertion of Hashemite authority. The events profoundly reshaped the dynamics of the Arab–Israeli conflict and led to the creation of the Black September Organization.

Background

Following the Six-Day War in 1967 and the Battle of Karameh in 1968, the Palestine Liberation Organization and its constituent groups, like the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine and Fatah, established a powerful, semi-autonomous presence within Jordan. This period, often called the "fedayeen heyday," saw these groups operate with significant freedom, challenging the authority of King Hussein of Jordan and the Jordanian Armed Forces. Tensions escalated as the PLO effectively created a state within a state, conducting cross-border raids into Israel from Jordanian territory, which provoked Israeli reprisals like the Battle of Karameh. The Cairo Agreement (1969) failed to ease hostilities, and several assassination attempts against King Hussein, along with incidents like the Dawson's Field hijackings by the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine, brought the kingdom to a crisis point. The political landscape was further complicated by the involvement of regional powers such as Syria, Iraq, and Egypt, each with differing stances on the Palestinian cause.

Conflict

Open warfare erupted in September 1970 after the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine hijacked multiple international flights to Dawson's Field in Jordan, an act that prompted King Hussein of Jordan to declare martial law. The Jordanian Armed Forces, commanded by generals like Habis Majali and Zaid ibn Shaker, launched a major offensive against PLO strongholds in Amman and northern cities like Irbid and Jerash. The fighting was particularly fierce in the Palestinian refugee camps of Amman, including Al-Wehdat camp and Al-Hussein camp. In a significant escalation, Syria intervened by sending an armored column of the Syrian Army across the border in support of the PLO, but this force was repelled by the Jordanian Armed Forces, possibly with covert assistance from Israel and diplomatic support from the United States. Key battles included the Siege of Amman and the defense of the Irbid region, where loyalist Bedouin units played a crucial role. By November 1970, a ceasefire was brokered in Cairo, though sporadic fighting continued.

Aftermath

The ceasefire agreements, including the Cairo Agreement (1970) and later the Amman Agreement, ultimately failed to hold. Throughout 1971, the Jordanian Armed Forces conducted a final military campaign, culminating in the Battle of Ajloun and operations around Jerash, which crushed the last pockets of Palestinian fedayeen resistance. This resulted in the expulsion of the Palestine Liberation Organization and its leadership, including Yasser Arafat, who relocated their base of operations to Lebanon. The conflict caused thousands of casualties and created a lasting rift between the Hashemite monarchy and many Palestinian residents of Jordan. Internationally, it exposed divisions within the Arab League, with leaders like Muammar Gaddafi of Libya condemning King Hussein, while others offered tacit support. The defeat directly led to the formation of the militant Black September Organization, which carried out operations like the Munich massacre at the 1972 Summer Olympics.

Legacy

The events of Black September fundamentally altered the geopolitics of the Middle East. It cemented King Hussein of Jordan's control over his kingdom and ended the direct challenge to state sovereignty from Palestinian guerrilla groups. The PLO's relocation to Lebanon contributed to the destabilization that led to the Lebanese Civil War. Militarily, the conflict demonstrated the effectiveness of the Jordanian Armed Forces and influenced later Arab military strategies. The creation of the Black September Organization introduced a new phase of international terrorism linked to the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. In the long term, the war deeply affected Jordanian-Palestinian relations within the kingdom, shaping its domestic politics for decades. The term "Black September" itself became a potent symbol in Palestinian nationalist discourse, representing a major setback and a catalyst for more radical, externalized forms of resistance.

Category:Wars involving Jordan Category:Arab–Israeli conflict Category:History of Jordan Category:20th century in Jordan Category:Palestinian nationalism