Black September

Black September. This term refers to the violent conflict fought in the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan between September 1970 and July 1971. The primary belligerents were the Jordanian Armed Forces under King Hussein of Jordan and the fedayeen militias of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), led by Yasser Arafat. The confrontation, which resulted in the expulsion of the PLO from Jordan, was a pivotal and bloody chapter in the broader Arab–Israeli conflict and reshaped the dynamics of Palestinian nationalism.

Background and origins

Tensions escalated following Jordan's loss of the West Bank to Israel during the Six-Day War in 1967, which led to a massive influx of Palestinian refugees into the kingdom. The PLO, particularly factions like the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) under George Habash, began operating as a state-within-a-state, challenging the authority of King Hussein of Jordan and his government in Amman. Key events such as the Battle of Karameh in 1968 boosted Palestinian prestige and recruitment, further emboldening the fedayeen. Repeated clashes, hijackings by groups like the PFLP, including the Dawson's Field hijackings, and assassination attempts against Jordanian officials created an atmosphere of crisis. The final trigger was the Cairo Agreement, which failed to curb PLO autonomy, leading King Hussein to declare martial law.

Conflict and key events

The conflict erupted in earnest on 17 September 1970, when the Jordanian army launched a major assault on PLO strongholds in Amman and other northern cities like Irbid and Al-Salt. A critical early development was the intervention of Syria, which sent an armored column of the Syrian Army across the border in support of the PLO. This incursion, involving tanks from the 5th Infantry Division, was repelled by the Jordanian military with crucial air support from the United States and Israel. The intense, urban warfare, particularly the prolonged siege of Palestinian camps in Amman, was devastating. A ceasefire was brokered by Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt at the Arab League summit in Cairo, but fighting sporadically resumed. The Jordanian military, under commanders like Habis Majali, continued operations through 1971, culminating in the final defeat of PLO forces in the forests of Ajloun in July.

Aftermath and legacy

The defeat forced the PLO and its leadership, including Yasser Arafat, to relocate their main base of operations to Lebanon, setting the stage for future conflicts like the Lebanese Civil War. It solidified the political rift between the Hashemite monarchy and the Palestinian nationalist movement. In retaliation, the Palestinian Fatah faction later formed the Black September Organization, a clandestine group responsible for high-profile acts like the Munich massacre at the 1972 Summer Olympics. The event profoundly influenced regional politics, strengthening the position of King Hussein of Jordan domestically while pushing the PLO toward more radical and international militant tactics. It also underscored the limits of pan-Arab unity and reshaped the strategic calculations of major powers like the United States and the Soviet Union in the Middle East.

In popular culture

The events of the conflict and their aftermath have been depicted in several notable films and works of literature. The movie The Little Drummer Girl, based on the novel by John le Carré, involves a plot inspired by the shadowy militant groups that emerged from the period. The Academy Award-winning documentary One Day in September focuses specifically on the Munich massacre carried out by the Black September Organization. The conflict also forms a significant backdrop in the historical novel *The Cellist of Sarajevo* by Steven Galloway, though it is not the central setting. These works reflect the enduring global fascination with the period's themes of terrorism, geopolitics, and national identity.

Category:Arab–Israeli conflict Category:History of Jordan Category:Palestinian nationalism Category:Wars involving Syria Category:1970 in Jordan