1870 United States Census

1870 United States Census
U.S. Department of the Interior · Public domain · source
Name	1870 United States Census
Country	United States
Date	June 1, 1870
Population	38,925,598
Percent change	+22.6%
Region type	state
Most populous	New York
Prev year	1860
Next year	1880

1870 United States Census. The ninth decennial census of the United States, conducted as of June 1, 1870, was the first enumeration following the American Civil War and the pivotal Reconstruction era constitutional amendments. It recorded a total population of 38,925,598, revealing the profound demographic shifts caused by emancipation and westward expansion. The census faced significant operational challenges and is noted for its serious undercounts, particularly in the Southern United States, yet it provided the first official, nationwide count of the newly enfranchised African-American population.

Background and authorization

The authorization for the 1870 census stemmed directly from the constitutional mandate in Article I, Section 2 and the requirements of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1868. This amendment overturned the Three-fifths Compromise by mandating that representation in the House of Representatives be based on the "whole number of persons" in each state, fundamentally altering the political calculus of the census. The administration of President Ulysses S. Grant and the 41st United States Congress oversaw its planning during a period of intense political conflict over Reconstruction. The Census Act of 1850 still governed procedures, but the context was transformed by the aftermath of the Civil War and the passage of the Thirteenth and Fifteenth Amendments.

Data collection and methodology

Supervised by Francis Amasa Walker, the Superintendent of the United States Census Office, enumeration was conducted by U.S. Marshals and their assistants through door-to-door visits. The schedule expanded to include two primary forms: a population schedule and a mortality schedule covering the year preceding June 1. Enumerators were instructed to collect data on all individuals, including former slaves now counted as full citizens. The process was notoriously difficult in the Southern United States, where resistance from white populations, the physical destruction from wartime campaigns, and the mobility of freedpeople hampered accuracy. Communication and transportation obstacles in the frontier regions, such as the Dakota Territory and the Arizona Territory, also presented major logistical hurdles.

Population findings and demographics

The census recorded a national population increase of 22.6% to 38.9 million. For the first time, it officially differentiated between native and foreign-born white populations and attempted to enumerate the entire African-American populace, counting 4.88 million Black citizens. The data showed the continued demographic dominance of New York as the most populous state and the rapid growth of midwestern states like Illinois and Ohio. It documented the substantial Chinese population in California, largely connected to labor on the First transcontinental railroad, and counted Native Americans only if they were taxed and living outside reservations. The data revealed the beginnings of a significant post-war migration of African Americans from rural areas to cities like New Orleans and Washington, D.C..

Significant changes and innovations

This census introduced several notable innovations in content and demographic inquiry. It was the first to request information on "parentage," asking if a person's parents were of foreign birth, and included questions on male citizenship status to monitor enfranchisement under the Fifteenth Amendment. Superintendent Francis Amasa Walker pioneered the use of more detailed occupational classifications, moving beyond simple tallies to analyze the national workforce. The census also made a concerted, though flawed, effort to quantify school attendance and literacy, providing early social indicators. These changes reflected a shift toward using the census as a tool for sociological and economic analysis, not merely a political apportionment instrument.

Limitations and controversies

The 1870 census is widely considered one of the most inaccurate in U.S. history, with severe undercounts estimated at roughly 1.2 million people, predominantly in the South. Historians and contemporary officials like Francis Amasa Walker acknowledged widespread under-enumeration of both Black and white populations due to local hostility, intimidation by groups like the Ku Klux Klan, and general distrust of federal authority. There were also allegations of deliberate fabrication in some districts to manipulate House apportionment. The count of the Chinese population on the West Coast was also suspect, influenced by growing nativist sentiment. These inaccuracies fueled political disputes, particularly as they affected the allocation of congressional seats and electoral votes to Southern states under Reconstruction.

Legacy and impact

Despite its flaws, the 1870 census established a crucial demographic baseline for the post-emancipation United States and was instrumental for implementing the Reconstruction Acts. The data informed the enforcement of the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments and the work of the Freedmen's Bureau. The operational failures directly led to significant reforms, including the Census Act of 1879, which professionalized the census process and established a permanent Census Office for the 1880 enumeration under Francis Amasa Walker. As a historical resource, it provides an indispensable, if imperfect, snapshot of a nation grappling with the integration of four million new citizens and the scars of the American Civil War.

Category:1870 in the United States Category:1870 censuses Category:United States censuses